摘要: and ,, the primary agents of human bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide, are widespread in surface water. Several animal sources contribute to surface water contamination with ,, but their relative contributions thus far remained unclear. Here, the prevalence, genotype diversity, and potential animal sources of , and , strains in surface water in the Netherlands were investigated. It was also assessed whether the contribution of the different animal sources varied according to surface water type (i.e. agricultural water, surface water at discharge points of wastewater treatment plants [WWTPs], and official recreational water), season, and local livestock (poultry, pig, ruminant) density. For each surface water type, 30 locations spread over six areas with either high or low density of poultry, ruminants, or pigs, were sampled once every season in 2018-2019. , prevalence was highest in agricultural waters (77%), and in autumn and winter (74%), and lowest in recreational waters (46%) and in summer (54%). In total, 76 , and 177 , water isolates were whole-genome sequenced. Most , water isolates (78.5%) belonged to hitherto unidentified clones when using the seven-locus sequence type (ST) scheme, while only 11.8% of the , isolates had unidentified STs. The origin of these isolates, as defined by core-genome multi-locus sequence typing (cgMLST), was inferred by comparison with , strain collections from meat-producing poultry, laying hens, adult cattle, veal calves, small ruminants, pigs, and wild birds. Water isolates were mainly attributed to wild birds (,: 60.0%; ,: 93.7%) and meat-producing poultry (,: 18.9%; ,: 5.6%). Wild bird contribution was high among isolates from recreational waters and WWTP discharge points, and in areas with low poultry (,) or high ruminant (,) densities. The contribution of meat-producing poultry was high in areas with high density of poultry, springtime, agricultural waters and WWTP discharge points. While wild birds and poultry were the main contributors to , contamination in surface water, their contribution differed significantly by water type, season, and local poultry and ruminant densities.