肝内区域免疫对肝移植后肿瘤复发的影响

刘江 ,  卢宠茂 ,  万钧

工程(英文) ›› 2022, Vol. 10 ›› Issue (3) : 57 -64.

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工程(英文) ›› 2022, Vol. 10 ›› Issue (3) : 57 -64. DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2021.11.012

肝内区域免疫对肝移植后肿瘤复发的影响

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Role of Intrahepatic Regional Immunity in Post-Transplant Cancer Recurrence

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摘要

肝脏恶性肿瘤是肝移植的一个主要适应症,但是肝移植后肿瘤复发却是影响受体长期生存的一个严峻临床挑战。肿瘤生物学特征、分期和移植后的免疫抑制状态一直被认为是肝癌复发的危险因素。而越来越多的证据表明,肝脏缺血再灌注(IR)对同种异体移植物的损伤则为肝移植后的肿瘤细胞侵袭性、转移性
提供了有利的免疫微环境。在活体肝移植中,边缘移植物(如小体积或脂肪移植物)的严重损伤与较低的无复发生存率之间的相关性,证实了IR 损伤与肿瘤复发之间的关联。IR 可引起肝内免疫微环境重构,包括恶化移植物损伤的促炎反应和加快组织修复的抗炎反应。然而,肝内区域免疫对移植后肿瘤复发的作
用尚不清晰。本文详述了IR 损伤诱导的肝内体液微环境和调节性区域免疫微环境,以及它们如何影响肝移植后肿瘤复发的最新研究进展。综合理解移植后肝内区域免疫,将为移植后肿瘤复发提供精准诊断、治疗和预后预测的新策略。

Abstract

Hepatic malignancy is a major indication for liver transplantation; however, post-transplant cancer recurrence is an emerging clinical challenge affecting long-term outcomes. Pre-transplant tumor biology, staging, and post-transplant immunosuppression regimens have been elucidated as risk factors for recurrent liver cancer. However, increasing evidence indicates that hepatic ischemia and reperfusion (IR) injury to allografts are crucial to providing a favorable immunologic microenvironment for cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis after liver transplantation. The association of severe graft injury in marginal grafts, such as small-for-size or fatty grafts, with lower recurrence-free survival rates in living donor liver transplantations, substantiates the correlation between hepatic IR injury and cancer recurrence. IR have been demonstrated to trigger intrahepatic immunological microenvironment remodeling, including pro-inflammatory responses exacerbating graft injury and anti-inflammatory responses promoting tissue repair. However, the role of regional immunity in post-transplant cancer recurrence is not comprehensively understood. This review describes the up-to-date evidence of the intrahepatic humoral microenvironment and regional regulatory immunological microenvironment induced by IR injury, as well as their roles in cancer recurrence after liver transplantation. A comprehensive understanding of regional immunity will provide novel precise diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic strategies for post-transplant cancer recurrence.

关键词

肝移植 / 肝癌 / 复发 / 免疫学

Key words

Liver transplantation / Liver cancer / Recurrence / Immunology

引用本文

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刘江,卢宠茂,万钧. 肝内区域免疫对肝移植后肿瘤复发的影响[J]. 工程(英文), 2022, 10(3): 57-64 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2021.11.012

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1、 引言

肝移植是针对终末期肝病最有效的治疗方法,此类疾病包括失代偿期肝硬化、急性肝功能衰竭、肝脏恶性肿瘤和代谢性疾病等。其中,肝脏恶性肿瘤是肝移植的主要适应症之一,占所有肝移植病例的20%以上[1]。肝癌肝移植的严格的筛选标准,可使肝癌患者获益最大,同时兼顾对肝移植等候名单的公平性[2]。过去几十年来,接受肝移植的肝细胞癌(HCC)患者在肝移植后的5年总生存率(OS)已提高到70%~80% [3‒4]。不过,移植后肿瘤复发这一新的临床挑战严重影响了患者的长期获益。

循环肿瘤细胞是导致肿瘤复发的一个来源。发生缺血再灌注损伤的移植肝也为这一发病机制提供了合适的环境。移植肝的缺血再灌注损伤已被证明有助于循环肿瘤细胞归巢、黏附、迁移和生长[5],其中遭受更严重缺血再灌注损伤的边缘移植肝尤为显著[6]。移植受者的免疫抑制状态为肿瘤复发创造了有利的免疫微环境,而移植物损伤则加剧了移植肝的免疫抑制状态[7]。除了常规的免疫抑制剂作用之外,移植受者因为缺乏足够的抗肿瘤免疫反应而可能出现更高的复发概率[8‒9]。因此,阐明同种异体移植物缺血再灌注损伤以及免疫耐受与抗肿瘤免疫之间的平衡机制,对于开发针对移植后肿瘤复发的预防和治疗措施至关重要。本文就肝移植过程中肝内区域免疫和微环境改变及其在术后肿瘤复发中的作用进行阐述。

2、 肝移植中的肝内区域免疫微环境

2.1 体液微环境

肝脏缺血再灌注对体液微环境有显著影响,可导致同种异体移植物损伤以及区域免疫稳态紊乱。再灌注后,短暂性门静脉高压导致肝内微循环功能障碍,直接损伤肝窦内皮细胞(LSEC)[6]。微循环功能障碍表现为肝窦淤血和窦周隙(Disse space)塌陷,当由于表达变化导致血管舒张和血管收缩因子失衡时,微循环功能障碍可能会变得更加严重。据报道,在再灌注1 h内,内皮素-1(ET-1)信使RNA(mRNA)水平增加161%,而内皮型一氧化氮合成酶(eNOS)表达显著降低,并伴有门静脉和下腔静脉血中一氧化氮生成减少[6]。这些变化可能进一步导致肝内微循环功能障碍,并引起肝实质缺血延长。此外,再灌注后,过度的氧合作用所导致的氧化应激可能直接损伤肝细胞和肝窦内皮细胞。这些直接和间接的影响,加上热休克蛋白70和血红素加氧酶-1在肝实质和肝非实质细胞中表达的减少,导致肝细胞代谢功能紊乱以及肝窦内皮细胞氧化应激障碍;其表现包括肝细胞线粒体肿胀和肝窦内皮细胞坏死[6]。受损的肝细胞释放各种损伤相关模式分子(DAMP),通过促进释放细胞因子和黏附分子而诱发固有免疫反应[10]。

2.2 细胞微环境

激活的驻留和循环固有免疫细胞参与肝脏缺血再灌注损伤后的炎症反应,进而重塑肝内区域免疫微环境。驻留巨噬细胞(Kupffer细胞)和动员的多形核(PMN)细胞活化是起始活动。这些细胞通过细胞表面的模式识别受体(PRR)识别从受损肝细胞和肝窦内皮细胞所释放的损伤相关模式分子(高迁移基团蛋白1、热休克蛋白、DNA、RNA等),并被激活以合成和分泌细胞因子、趋化因子、黏附分子和共刺激分子;这些分子将更多的固有免疫细胞动员到受损部位,从而引发炎症[11]。本团队的研究显示,急性期炎症反应在再灌注后2~24 h时达到峰值,表现为白细胞介素(IL)-6、白细胞介素-15和肿瘤坏死因子(TNF)-α、C-X-C基团趋化因子配体10(CXCL10)和C-C基团趋化因子配体2(CCL2)增加[6]。新的证据显示,在边缘移植物中,炎症反应甚至更加严重;这可以通过几种分子信号通路的变化来解释,包括脂质运载蛋白-2、醛糖还原酶、阻滞活化蛋白1、nod样受体蛋白3、CXCL10和CXCL2的增加,以及巨噬细胞和嗜中性粒细胞的迁移和激活[12‒15]。循环和骨髓来源的髓系抑制细胞(MDSC)、间充质干细胞(MSC)和树突状细胞(DC)也通过趋化因子被动员到移植肝中。此外,肝星状细胞(HSC)通过缺血再灌注触发的Wnt4信号被激活[16‒17]。这些被动员和激活的固有免疫细胞释放大量的细胞因子和趋化因子,如肿瘤坏死因子、白细胞介素-1β、白细胞介素-6、白细胞介素-10、白细胞介素-12、活性氧(ROS)、CXCL10、CCL2、CXCL8等,形成独特的、轻度免疫耐受的微环境[18]。它们为急性期移植物损伤以及循环肿瘤细胞黏附、迁移和增殖提供了混沌的微环境。它们还可以通过激活效应T细胞(Teff)和调节性T细胞(Treg),形成动态变化的环境进而发生排斥或耐受[19]。

Teff细胞和Treg细胞之间的动态关系由细胞因子网络进行调节。白细胞介素-2是维持此平衡关系的关键细胞因子[20‒21]。在被抗原呈递细胞(APC)刺激后,主要是CD4+ T细胞被激活,并释放成比例的白细胞介素-2,这对于Treg细胞的增殖及其功能至关重要[22]。白细胞介素-2与其受体白细胞介素-2Rα(CD25)在Treg细胞上的结合取决于CD4+ Teff细胞的分化状态,后者必须是中间分化状态而不能被完全激活[23]。否则,白细胞介素-2将对Teff细胞而非Treg细胞发挥作用[24]。据推断,这种来自Teff细胞的细胞因子分泌是为了缓解急性炎症反应[25]。但是,Treg细胞对Teff细胞的分化有抑制作用,这种抑制作用是通过抑制性细胞因子[如白细胞介素-10、转化生长因子-β(TGF-β)、白细胞介素-35]或经由抗原呈递细胞[如树突状细胞和替代活化型巨噬细胞(M2)]实现的[26‒30]。另外,Teff细胞也可以通过抑制Treg细胞分化来抵制后者的抑制。可通过白细胞介素-6介导的Treg细胞不稳定性、Fas配体(FasL)介导的Treg细胞死亡或通过干扰素-γ(IFN-γ)直接拮抗转化生长因子-β来实现Teff细胞的这种恢复力[31‒33]。因此,在肝移植中,Teff/Treg比率的增加会导致急性排斥反应,而Teff/Treg比率降低会导致在急性期发生不受控制的感染或引起后期肿瘤复发。在临床研究中,Teff/Treg的比率升高有利于乳腺癌、卵巢癌、非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)和肝细胞癌的发生发展[34‒38]。因此,肿瘤的新型免疫治疗策略旨在重新平衡这一比率;然而,由于内源性耐受性和免疫抑制治疗的影响,需要对Teff和Treg细胞在移植后肿瘤复发方面的动态关系进行详细研究。

3、 有利于肿瘤细胞归巢和增殖的区域体液微环境

急性期肝脏缺血再灌注损伤所塑造的肝内微环境不仅可以动员循环肿瘤细胞作为在肝内黏附和迁移的“种子”,还可以提供有利于肿瘤细胞存活和增殖的“土壤”[39]。在受损的肝移植物中,趋化因子CXCL10有较高的表达,并与肿瘤细胞中受体C-X-C基团趋化因子受体3(CXCR3)的表达上调密切相关。研究证明,在再灌注后2 h内,CXCL10在移植物中的表达量增加了三倍,而其在血浆中的浓度仅增加了两倍[40]。该研究的动物模型进一步显示,移植物内CXCL10的上调可以在肝移植后持续7 d,并且总是与CXCR3在肿瘤组织中的高表达相关。因此,这种趋化因子及其受体的上调,促进了循环肿瘤细胞在同种异体移植物中的归巢。此外,在短暂性门静脉高压期间,肝窦内皮细胞损伤所引起的微血管屏障破坏导致肿瘤细胞入侵。肝星状细胞的激活促使了肿瘤细胞黏附和迁移到损伤部位[41]。缺血再灌注还造成缺氧环境和活性氧大量释放,癌细胞由于具有独特的有氧糖酵解能力而存活下来[42]。肝脏缺血再灌注损伤动物模型亦显示,肝脏组织和血液中的谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶3(GPx3)显著降低,这阻碍了活性氧的消除并加速了肿瘤细胞的增殖[43]。该研究还表明,GPx3的下调可以通过激活c-Jun氨基末端激酶(JNK)-c-Jun基质金属蛋白酶(MMP)2通路而直接增强肿瘤的侵袭性[43]。

移植肝内的肿瘤内血管生成也会增强。在动物模型中,发现Rho激酶(ROCK)和血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)的高表达与肿瘤血管生成有关[44]。上调的CXCL10也可以直接增强ROCK和VEGF的表达。研究发现,在临床样本和动物肝移植模型中,随着肝脏和血浆中CXCL10水平的提高,内皮祖细胞(EPC)表面CXCR3的表达增加了两倍[40]。内皮祖细胞可以迁移到肿瘤中并分化为肿瘤内血管的内皮细胞,而这一作用依赖于CXCL10的表达水平。此外,研究还发现,CXCL10本身可以通过转录激活因子6(ATF6)/78千道尔顿葡萄糖调节蛋白(Grp78)信号通路激活来启动抗凋亡机制,从而促进癌细胞存活[45]。这些最新的发现表明,肝移植中缺血再灌注所引起的体液微环境改变,可为肿瘤复发提供有利的“土壤”。

4、 有利于肿瘤复发的区域免疫微环境

如上所述,肝移植后缺血再灌注损伤所引起的促炎微环境,将循环中或骨髓来源的巨噬细胞、嗜中性粒细胞、树突状细胞、B细胞、T细胞、髓源抑制性细胞(MDSC)和间充质干细胞(MSC)动员到同种异体移植物中(图1)。在促炎反应导致效应B细胞和T细胞激活的同时,具有调节性的免疫微环境也被启动,这有利于肿瘤的复发[46]。

图1 肝内体液和细胞免疫调节促使移植后肿瘤复发。

4.1 肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(TAM)

根据独特的表面标记物,可以将驻留或循环巨噬细胞分为传统巨噬细胞(M1)和替代活化型巨噬细胞(M2)亚群[47]。M2具有抑制M1促炎细胞因子分泌并促进肝脏缺血再灌注损伤后损伤修复的潜力[48]。肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(TAM)表现出M2表型,但与肿瘤恶性程度、侵袭性、转移性,以及复发密切相关[49‒50]。本团队的一项研究探讨了M2和TAM与肝细胞癌发生的相关性以及潜在机制。在大鼠原位肝移植模型中观察到,在再灌注后2~3周内,移植物内和肿瘤内TAM的增加达到峰值。该研究还显示CXCL10表达的显著增加,可以通过增加粒细胞-巨噬细胞(GM)-肿瘤干细胞(CSC)、白细胞介素-2、单核细胞趋化蛋白1(MCP-1)和血管内皮生长因子的表达来动员TAM并促进血管生成[44]。此外,另一项研究表明,肝细胞癌患者中较高的CD163+ M2细胞量是影响5年总生存率和无复发生存率的独立危险因素[51]。在促进肿瘤侵袭性方面,CD163+ M2与TAM一样,通过分泌CCL22以激活Snail信号,从而促进肿瘤细胞的上皮-间质转化(EMT)。在肝移植样本中发现M2存在一个更具特征性的亚群,即调节性巨噬细胞。这些巨噬细胞分泌白细胞介素-10,但不表达精氨酸酶1,也不会被信号转导及转录激活蛋白6(STAT6)信号所激活[52]。然而,调节性巨噬细胞具有免疫耐受性,它们能抑制Teff细胞的激活和增殖,并诱导Treg细胞生成[53]。然而,这种调节性巨噬细胞与移植后肿瘤复发的临床相关性尚不清晰。

4.2 树突状细胞

在适应性免疫中,树突状细胞是最有效的抗原呈递细胞。髓样树突状细胞和浆细胞样树突状细胞(pDC)均被报道与免疫耐受和肿瘤进展有关。一项小儿肝移植研究发现,免疫抑制患者中较高的浆细胞样树突状细胞水平与较低的免疫抑制有关[54]。肿瘤内较高的浆细胞样树突状细胞水平也被鉴定为切除术后肿瘤复发的一个预后因素[55]。此外,研究发现,在免疫抑制撤除时,浆细胞样树突状细胞上较高的程序性死亡配体1(PD-L1)和CD86的表达水平与较高的CD4+CD25hiFOXP3+ Treg [CD: 分化簇(cluster of differentiation);FOXP3: 叉头盒蛋白3(forkhead box P3)]细胞数量有关[56]。因此,这些发现表明,PD-L1和CD86高表达的树突状细胞可能是移植后肿瘤复发的关键因素,原因是它们能诱导Treg细胞的生成。

4.3 髓源抑制性细胞和间充质干细胞

髓源抑制性细胞和骨髓来源的间充质干细胞被炎症细胞因子大量动员和聚集在缺血再灌注损伤的同种异体移植物中[57‒58]。它们抑制炎症级联反应并维持微环境内稳态,以促进组织修复和再生。髓源抑制性细胞可以抑制Teff细胞、B细胞和自然杀伤(NK)细胞的活性,并在白细胞介素-10和IFNγ存在的情况下诱导Treg细胞分化[59‒61]。本团队研究表明,循环中和肝内CD33+CD13+CD34+单核髓源抑制性细胞与移植后肝细胞癌复发呈正相关,特别是在使用小体积同种异体移植物的情况下[57]。循环中髓源抑制性细胞向肝内微环境的动员取决于同种异体移植物中较高表达的CXCL10所诱导的高表达的Toll样受体4(TLR4)。此外,活化的的髓源抑制性细胞还可以与树突状细胞和巨噬细胞相互作用,以维持替代活化型巨噬细胞的分化和未成熟的树突状细胞的存活[62]。迁移到受损同种异体移植物内的间充质干细胞,对免疫抑制微环境的影响与髓源抑制性细胞相似,但通过与之有区别的转化生长因子-β和前列腺素E2(PGE2)的调节机制发挥作用[63‒64]。重塑的免疫微环境分泌大量的白细胞介素-10,有利于肿瘤细胞的免疫逃逸,但这点尚需直接证据来证明。

4.4 调节性B(B)细胞

在人类和小鼠中均已发现多种Breg细胞亚群[65]。它们都有一个共同的特点,即分泌白细胞介素-10,在癌症或损伤期间维持免疫调节[66]。根据一项有关Breg细胞对肝细胞癌进展影响的研究,CD19+CD24hiCD38hi B细胞在肿瘤边缘的积聚与更具侵袭性的肿瘤行为和更高的复发率有关[67]。循环Breg细胞数量较多也与较晚的肝细胞癌分期和静脉浸润有关。该研究进一步证实,CD19+CD24hiCD38hi B细胞通过CD40/CD154信号激活与癌细胞直接相互作用,从而促进肿瘤进展。在免疫调节中,Breg细胞最常见的作用是诱导CD4+ T细胞分化为Treg细胞[66]。不过,关于Breg细胞在移植后肿瘤复发方面的功能和具体作用尚不清楚。

4.5 调节性T细胞

少数研究报道了Treg细胞对移植后肿瘤复发的影响。许多T细胞亚群具有调节功能,而胸腺来源和诱导分化的CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ Treg细胞则是主要的免疫调节细胞[7]。一项研究报道称,在肝细胞癌组织中检测到FOXP3+ Treg细胞与血管浸润有关,但与移植后肿瘤复发不相关[68]。然而,最近的一项包括131例经肝移植或根治切除术治疗的肝细胞癌病例的研究表明,除较高的癌症分期影响外,肝细胞癌组织中FOXP3/CD3 T细胞的比例较高也与无复发生存率降低有关[69]。这些发现表明,肿瘤内Treg细胞的存在预示着肝移植后肿瘤复发的预后较差。然而,移植后肿瘤复发期间的潜在机制,包括Treg分化、诱导、动员和功能,以及预后作用,直到最近才被逐渐揭示。本团队对257名患有肝细胞癌的肝移植受体进行研究,发现循环CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ Treg细胞群与肝细胞癌复发率呈正相关[70]。肝内TLR4、CXCL10及其受体CXCR3的较高表达也与Treg细胞的增加有关,特别是在使用小体积移植物的肝移植中。在一项动物实验中发现,CXCL10/CXCR3信号对移植物内Treg细胞的动员和聚集是必需的,后者的增加有利于缺血再灌注损伤后晚期肝细胞癌的复发。更重要的是,循环Treg细胞增加与移植后肿瘤复发之间的相关性意味着通过液体活检可以很容易地实现预后预测。

5、 临床意义

特殊的移植物内免疫微环境可为肝移植后肿瘤复发的预测、诊断和治疗提供关键信息。用于原发性肝癌治疗的生物标志物和免疫治疗方案,也可以被用于治疗肿瘤复发,然而两种情况的免疫微环境的差异则是主要的顾虑[71]。由于移植后的免疫抑制治疗,受损的免疫微环境使得肿瘤细胞能够逃脱免疫监测。因此,大多数用于预测或诊断肿瘤复发的免疫学生物标志物并不存在。此外,目前针对复发肿瘤细胞所采取的免疫治疗策略,有可能诱发同种异体移植物排斥。所以,需要鉴定新的与改变的免疫微环境有关的潜在生物标志物和治疗靶点,以提高对于移植后肿瘤复发的精确预测和预防能力。

5.1 用于预测肿瘤复发的生物标志物

5.1.1. 血管内皮生长因子

血管生成对肿瘤的生长至关重要,否则肿瘤的大小将被限制在1~2 mm [72]。血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)是肿瘤内新血管形成的关键调节因子,它的上调与小体积移植物损伤和移植后肿瘤复发有关[39,44]。因此,循环中或肝内VEGF水平可能被用于预测肿瘤复发。Duda等[73]报道了使用VEGF相关的循环生物标志物对符合米兰标准的肝细胞癌的肝移植预后进行预测。他们发现血浆VEGF的增加和可溶性VEGF受体(sVEGFR1)的减少,降低了无病生存的概率(危险比分别为1.45和0.64)。因此,在当前的预后标准中加入血管内皮生长因子,将提高移植后肿瘤复发预测的准确性。事实上,VEGF通路抑制剂已被用于复发肝细胞癌的治疗[74‒75]。

5.1.2. C-X-C基因趋化因子配体10

CXCL10最近被鉴定为一种可动员调节性免疫细胞以重塑耐受性微环境的趋化因子。研究发现,循环CXCL10和肝内CXCL10的高表达与Treg细胞和髓源抑制性细胞被动员进入移植物的量以及内皮祖细胞迁移形成新生血管有关[40,57,70]。有趣的是,CXCL10的血浆水平与肝内表达水平相似,这意味着将CXCL10液体活检用于反映区域肝内免疫微环境是可行性的[40]。

5.1.3. C反应蛋白(CRP)

CRP最近因其对于肝细胞癌复发的预测价值而获得关注。CRP可因白细胞介素-1和白细胞介素-6的分泌而使反应性升高,是一个高度敏感的炎症生物标志物[76‒77]。虽然无特异性,但是一些研究已验证了CRP在预测移植后肿瘤复发方面的价值。在活体供肝和尸体供肝的肝移植受体中,手术前或手术后立即出现的较高CRP水平与较差的总生存率和无病生存率相关[78‒81]。此外,高CRP水平与肿瘤生物学的高进展性密切相关,如血管浸润、肿瘤大小和数量。不过,该相关性仅在超出米兰标准的肝细胞癌中具有显著性。尽管如此,易于获取的CRP水平仍可作为肝移植后的监视工具。

5.1.4. 中性粒细胞与淋巴细胞比值(NLR)

除分子生物标志物外,免疫细胞作为移植后肿瘤复发的指示指标也被关注。传统用于肿瘤复发预测的模型,包括米兰标准和加利福尼亚大学旧金山分校(UCSF)标准,只包含肿瘤分期中的大小和数目。而更新的模型,如移植后肿瘤复发风险评估(RETREAT)评分模型,在米兰标准基础上,还提供了更多的参数[如甲胎蛋白(AFP)和病肝中的微血管浸润],具有更好的预测效果。最近的肝移植后复发模型(MORAL)评分将免疫学因素——中性粒细胞与淋巴细胞比值纳入其中,用于结局预测,结果显示该评分比RETREAT评分具有更好的精确度(c统计量为0.91对0.82)[82]。将免疫学参数纳入风险预测模型,反映了肿瘤复发(特别是在复杂区域免疫条件下)的免疫学本质,但在相关临床队列研究中开展进一步验证是必要的。

5.2 移植后肿瘤复发的免疫治疗

5.2.1. 靶向免疫治疗

目前的免疫治疗主要通过检查点抑制来使T细胞失活[83‒85]。PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂及细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关抗原-4(CTLA-4)抑制剂已被广泛用于许多针对晚期肝细胞癌的临床试验,与索拉非尼方案相比,这些免疫治疗方案在无进展或总生存率方面显示出显著优势[86‒89]。然而,由于在平衡抗肿瘤免疫反应和同种异体移植物排斥方面的复杂性,用于移植后复发性肝细胞癌的免疫检查点抑制剂(ICI)治疗的相关研究十分稀少。迄今为止,只有关于将ICI用于肝移植后肿瘤复发的病例报告。在所报告的14个病例中,使用ICI后中位无进展生存期只有1.3个月,中位总生存期只有1.1个月[90‒96]。在这些患者中,有11例死亡病例,主要原因是移植物排斥(5/11, 45.4%)或疾病进展和多器官衰竭(6/11, 54.5%)[97‒98]。值得注意的是,在两名复发性黑色素瘤患者使用CTLA-4抑制剂伊匹单抗后,没有显示出移植排斥或免疫相关的副作用[91,95]。这可能是由于CTLA-4在Teff和Treg细胞中都有表达的关系。不过,在缺乏涉及移植后肿瘤复发患者以及含ICI免疫检查点抑制剂的新方案的大宗病例研究证据时,应避免对肝移植后复发肿瘤进行免疫治疗。

5.2.2. 细胞治疗

ICI在治疗肝移植后复发肿瘤方面的局限性在于必须全身用药和Teff细胞的非特异性再激活。因此,加强针对肿瘤特异性抗原或肿瘤微环境的肝内区域免疫反应,理论上可以提高疗效并减少同种异体移植物排斥的副作用。

嵌合抗原受体(CAR)T细胞是目前最热门的用于杀伤肿瘤的细胞疗法。该疗法从健康患者身上提取T细胞,并使用嵌合抗原受体对细胞进行针对肿瘤特异性抗原的修饰[99]。该技术可以仅识别肿瘤细胞而不对非肿瘤细胞产生反应,从而减少同种异体移植物排斥反应的副作用。不过,到目前为止,该疗法很少被报道,仅见于一些非肝移植治疗肝细胞癌的临床前研究[100]。易发的严重的细胞因子释放综合征阻碍了CAR-T细胞疗法的发展[101]。另一种使用T细胞受体(TCR)修饰T细胞的过继性细胞疗法在肝移植肿瘤复发患者中显示出可喜的成果。在这项研究中,TCR-T细胞被设计成能够识别乙肝病毒(HBV)特异性抗原,用于治疗乙肝病毒相关的肝细胞癌复发,并对广泛的肝外复发病灶显示出有效性[102‒103]。这一令人鼓舞的结果意味着,找到肿瘤特异性抗原是使用过继性免疫细胞疗法成功治疗移植后复发肿瘤的关键,而这只需少量的细胞且不会诱发细胞因子释放综合症。此外,对于细胞因子诱导的细胞疗法,即输注由白细胞介素-2诱导的来自供体的自然杀伤细胞以防止移植后肿瘤复发,在两年的随访中患者没有显示出肝细胞癌复发[104]。不过,该研究只是一项单独的初步研究,应该在更大的队列研究中进一步寻找证据。有趣的是,我们最近的一项研究使用了经工程设计的携带高表达GPx3的间充质干细胞,其在一个原位肝癌小鼠模型中显示出显著的肿瘤杀伤作用[105]。其细胞递送方式比较独特,即利用磁场驱动的微米级生物材料将间充质干细胞转运到靶区[105‒106]。这将确保精准地重塑肝内区域微环境,并消除对正常肝组织的潜在副作用。总之,过继性细胞疗法是治疗肝移植后复发肿瘤的最有效方法。随着治疗性免疫细胞本身或递送系统的设计变得越来越精巧,该疗法具有更好的应用前景。

6、 结论

肝移植后肿瘤复发已成为一个新的临床挑战,而潜在机制的不明确阻碍了有效治疗策略的发展。肝移植后,受体免疫微环境的改变在肿瘤发展中起关键作用。肝脏区域免疫微环境改变主要由缺血再灌注损伤所诱发,易导致肝移植后肿瘤的复发。体液微环境通过促进肿瘤细胞黏附、迁移、增殖和瘤内血管生成使得移植肝更有利于肿瘤的浸润和转移。此外,调节性、固有和适应性免疫反应,包括肿瘤相关巨噬细胞、树突状细胞、髓源抑制性细胞、间充质干细胞和Treg细胞,也会改变微环境使其有利于肿瘤细胞生长和免疫逃逸。上述肝移植方面的最新区域免疫学研究进展,暗含了针对移植物内免疫微环境的新疗法,并为远期肿瘤复发提供了可能的预后预测工具。

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