仿生牙釉质材料的工程制造策略
Engineered Fabrication of Enamel-Mimetic Materials
牙釉质是由有序排列的羟基磷灰石纳米晶体和交错的蛋白质基质组成的生物组织,具有优异的力学和美学特性。然而,当牙釉质受损时很难自然再生,并且随着牙釉质损伤不断发展,可能会累及牙髓,甚至牙齿脱落。牙釉质作为最硬的生物复合材料,长期以来一直被认为是一种很有前景的承重材料。因此,了解牙釉质形成过程和牙釉质结构基序,对于设计和工程制造具有高强度和高弹性的仿生复合材料非常重要。既往研究已经对牙釉质的微观结构和力学性能进行了广泛的研究,并通过模拟天然牙釉质的结构及性质开发了各种仿生牙釉质的材料合成策略。本文着眼于仿生牙釉质材料的工程制造,重点介绍仿生牙釉质材料合成策略的最新进展,并讨论其潜在应用价值。
Tooth enamel, which is a biological tissue mainly composed of well-aligned hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and an interlaced protein matrix, has remarkable mechanical and aesthetic behaviors. Nevertheless, it is challenging to regenerate enamel naturally, and potential pulp involvement and tooth loss may occur. As the hardest biogenic composite material, enamel has long been regarded as a promising load-bearing material. Thus, understanding the enamel formation process and enamel structural motif mechanisms is important for the design and engineering of high-performance biomimetic composites with high strength and physical resilience. Extensive studies have been conducted on mimicking the microstructure and mechanical properties of tooth enamel, and various enamel-like material synthesis protocols have been developed. In light of the engineering fabrication of enamel-like materials, this review focuses on recent progress in synthetic strategies for enamel-mimetic materials and provides a discussion of the potential applications of these materials.
Regeneration / Remineralization / Abiotic enamel / Biomimetic
| Synthetic strategies | Methods | Major components | Achievements | Limitations | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Replication of enamel-like structures | |||||
| Whole-tooth engineering | |||||
| In situ growth of enamel-like structures | Autologous transplantation of reconstructed tooth germ | HAPs | Correct ultrastructure such as enamel rods; components similar to natural tooth (Ca/P 2.05 and Ca/P 1.95, respectively); enamel-matching functionality, with periodontal ligament-mediated tooth movement without ankylosis in response to orthodontic force (10 gfa for 30 days); successful in vivo experiment involving autologous transplantation in a large-animal model | Unclear regulatory mechanisms for tooth germ development; inefficient reconstructing condition; limited number and morphology of the given type of teeth; loss of odontogenic potential after in vitro expansion | [30] |
| Physicochemical enamel replication | |||||
| In situ growth of enamel-like structures | Using CPICs to mimic the mineralization frontier | HAPs | Seamless repair layer; excellent mechanical properties, with a hardness of (3.84 ± 0.20) GPa, an elastic modulus of (87.26 ± 3.73) GPa, and a COF of 0.180 ± 0.008, slightly exceeding that of natural enamel | Limited thickness of 2.8 μm, incubation for 48 h | [39] |
| Using in situ wet-chemical growth technique | ZrO2 ceramics | Enamel-matching mechanical properties, with a Young’s modulus of ~82.5 GPa and a hardness of ~5.2 GPa; enhanced resilience toward mastication damage; high resistance to bacterial adhesion and proliferation | Limited thickness of ~400 nm | [19] | |
| De novo synthesis of enamel-like structures | HAP assembly | HAPs | Self-assembly synthetic HAPs; potential for printing technique | Limited mechanical properties, with a Young’s modulus of ~13.6 GPa | [43] |
| LBL deposition | ZnO nanowires + a polyelectrolyte matrix | Inexpensive components; enamel-matching properties, with a VFOM of 0.7‒0.9, a weight-adjusted VFOM of > 0.8, and a Young’s modulus of (39.8 ± 0.9) GPa | Limited hardness of (1.65 ± 0.06) GPa | [2] | |
| 3D printing | Alumina platelets | Enamel-matching mechanical properties, with high flexural strength ((202 ± 10) MPa), compressive strength (452 MPa), a high Young’s modulus ((99.1 ± 0.6) GPa), and high fracture toughness ((3.0 ± 0.3) MPa∙m1/2); Bouligand structures similar to the decussation enamel prisms, exhibiting R-curves behavior | Limited resolution of structure | [46] | |
| Biochemical enamel engi- neering | Utilizing CS-AMEL reinforced by MMP-20 | HAPs | Better uniform orientation; improved mechanical properties, with an increased modulus and hardness (a 1.8-fold increase in elastic modulus and a 2.4-fold increase in hardness compared with the same hydrogel without MMP-20); preventing protein occlusion; HAP component | Limited thickness of 15‒30 μm | [69] |
| Adopting LRAP | HAPs | Remineralization promotion | Limited thickness of ~2 μm | [50] | |
| Using IDPs | FAPs | Enamel-matching elastic modulus of (33.0 ± 20.1) GPa; a larger structure tens of micrometers in length and height; enamel-matching acid and protease resistance | Limited hardness of (1.1 ± 0.8) GPa; limited replication of structure, as it further grew into a larger circular structure; fluoride component | [55] | |
| Synthesizing PAMAM-PO3H2 | HAPs | Enamel-matching mechanical properties with a regenerated enamel prism-like HAP layer showing 97% recovered microhardness; an adhesive force of 50 N; successful in vivo regeneration experiment with a thickness of 6.63 μm | Limited thickness of 11.23 μm in 3 weeks; exact mechanical properties unknown | [57] | |
| Generation of enamel-matching mechanical properties | |||||
| Freeze-casting technique | Adopting bidirectional freeze-casting technique to synthesize nacre-inspired structure | 3Y-TZP + a light-curing methacrylate resin | Enamel-matching mechanical properties, with an enamel-matching Young’s modulus ((42 ± 4) GPa), hardness, stiffness, and strength; high toughness (J-integral fracture toughness of ~1.7 kJ∙m-2, ASTM valid crack-growth toughness of ~9.6 MPa∙m1/2) | Nacre-inspired structure | [66] |
| Hybrid LBL assembly technique | Depositing a hard linear-LBL film layer on top of a relatively soft exponential-LBL layer to mimic the epidermis structure | GO + poly (vinyl alcohol) + tannic acid | Enamel-matching hardness of (2.27 ± 0.09) GPa; self-healing potential | Limited elastic modulus of (31.4 ± 1.8) GPa; epidermis-like structure | [68] |
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