1. Introduction
As a legume crop, soybean (
Glycine max [L.] Merr.) has many nutritional attributes, ranging from high levels of protein (40%), carbohydrates (25%), oil (20%), fiber (10%), and minerals (4%) to bioactive compounds (1%)
[1] that are important for human nutrition and health. Because of its protein-rich seed meal after oil extraction, soybean is also a valuable feed for the livestock industry. Due to its multiple uses, soybean represents more than 10% of global agricultural trade, at 99.41 million tonnes of imported soybean in 2023, with Brazil, the United States, and Argentina as the leading producers and China as the major consumer
[2],
[3].
Africa is the most food-insecure region in the world. However, with more than 65% of the continent being uncultivated arable land (445 million hectares
[4],
[5]), Africa should be able to feed itself by increasing its soybean production, with the added opportunity of exporting surplus soybeans to major consumers such as China. However, new or introduced crops are generally met with challenges anywhere in the world, ranging from biotic and abiotic factors to inadequate knowledge of the crop. In Africa, in particular, most small-scale farmers generally lack formal education and/or training to handle modern technologies, which can affect the rate of adoption and use of new technologies and innovations that underpin agricultural modernization.
Moreover, introduced grain legumes such as soybean can experience biological constraints in their new environments. For example, the presence or absence of adequate, effective, and competitive native nitrogen gas (N
2)-fixing rhizobia can alter the nodulation and N
2 fixation of the introduced legume, thus affecting its nitrogen (N) nutrition. Although the absence of compatible rhizobia in soils can be overcome through the use of bioinoculants
[6], inadequate knowledge of microbiology can limit the expansion of soybean production in Africa. The aim of this study was to explore opportunities that can be tapped into to increase soybean production in Africa for food security and poverty alleviation. This production would also promote China–Africa trade in soybean, create jobs, and increase the gross domestic product (GDP) of African countries, while diversifying China’s soybean import sources.
2. History of soybean production in Africa
According to Giller and Dashiell
[7], soybeans were introduced to Africa by Chinese traders in the 19th century through the East African corridor, and the crop’s cultivation was first documented in South Africa in 1903
[8], followed by Nigeria in 1908, Malawi and Tanzania in 1909, and Ghana and Sudan in 1910
[9], spreading across the entire African continent by 1912. Soybean cultivation increased following the discovery of its nutritional value in overcoming protein calorie malnutrition in children and pregnant or lactating mothers
[10]. In Africa, the increased adoption of soybean as a crop was also driven by its multiple uses as food for humans and feed for livestock, as well as its industrial application as a biofuel and for the maintenance of soil health via biological N
2 fixation and contaminant removal for sustainable crop production
[11],
[12],
[13],
[14],
[15].
Due to poor yields and few producing countries, soybean production in Africa has remained very low and uncompetitive. South Africa is currently the leading producer of soybeans in Africa, with 1.78 million tonnes in 2023–2024, followed by Nigeria, Zambia, and Uganda with 1.15 million, 0.48 million, and 0.20 million tonnes, respectively, and Malawi, Ghana, and Ethiopia with less than 0.20 million tonnes each. As a result, between 2015 and 2017, Africa produced only 0.78% of the global volume of soybeans
[16], indicating a great opportunity to promote the increased land-area cultivation of soybean.
Africa’s low contribution to the global volume of soybean grown is also due to low grain yield. For example, while the annual soybean yield in the United States was 3.33 t·ha
–1 in 2022–2023, that in Africa was less than 1.50 t·ha
–1 [17]. This low yield is largely attributed to biotic and abiotic factors, poor management, low nodulation and N
2 fixation, the use of low-yielding varieties, and unreliable rainfall patterns due to climate change. Thus, promoting commercial soybean production in Africa would first require seeking solutions to these constraints. Researchers and policymakers developing soybean grain production on the continent—especially under the auspices of the Forum on China–Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) Beijing Action Plan (2025–2027)—are seeking to accelerate agricultural modernization in Africa, promote agricultural cooperation and technology transfer, and increase science and technology cooperation and knowledge sharing between China and Africa
[18].
3. Nodulation constraint on commercial soybean production in Africa
Soybean production and export to China is a significant business in world trade to which Africa could contribute, given its huge agricultural land area. However, certain biological constraints hinder soybean production in Africa, including poor root nodulation and N2 fixation by soil bacteria called rhizobia. The absence of these bacteria in soils and the competitiveness and N2-fixing efficacy of compatible strains can affect soybean production in Africa.
As found with all nodulated legumes, soybean’s N requirement is largely met through a symbiotic association with specific N
2-fixing bacteria, which include
Bradyrhizobium elkanii,
Bradyrhizobium japonicum [19],
Sinorhizobium fredii,
Mesorhizobium tianshanese [20], and
Bradyrhizobium liaoningense [21]. This mutualistic relationship, which occurs in 88% of Leguminosae, evolved approximately 58 million years ago
[22],
[23]. The nodulation process involves signal exchange between the host plant and the bacterial symbiont, whereby the legume emits flavonoid molecules that serve as chemo-attractants and nodulation gene inducers to attract compatible bacteria, which respond by producing nodulation factors in the form of lipo-chito-oligosaccharide molecules and type-III effectors to facilitate root hair infection and ultimately root nodulation
[24],
[25] (
Fig. 1). Symbiotic N
2 fixation by rhizobial bacteroids in root nodules produces ammonia (NH
3), which is exchanged with the host legume plant for carbohydrates, allowing legumes to grow optimally without dependence on soil N or mineral N fertilizers.
Historically, soybean nodulation in leading producer countries such as China, the United States, Brazil, and Argentina has relied on bacterial strains of
Bradyrhizobium japonicum [19], which are not native to African soils
[21],
[26]. This necessitates the inoculation of soybean crops in Africa to achieve optimal economic yields. The nodulation constraint of soybean in Africa partly explains the slow uptake of soybean production in that continent, in contrast to the United States, Brazil, and Argentina, where the routine use of bioinoculants—in addition to the seasonal application of inoculants at planting as an agronomic practice—has increased the population of naturalized rhizobia in the soil
[27]. Therefore, in Africa, large-scale commercial production of soybeans would ordinarily be difficult or almost impossible due to root nodulation constraint. In addition, most smallholder farmers in Africa face logistical and technical challenges in handling rhizobial inoculants, including refrigeration and field application (
Fig. 1). This has made it necessary for breeding programs to produce elite soybean genotypes with optimized yield in Africa without the need for commercial inoculation.
Fortunately, the Tropical Glycine cross (TGx) soybean cultivars bred by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) can freely nodulate with indigenous African soil rhizobia
[27], thus eliminating the need for soybean inoculation with commercial rhizobial strains in Africa
[6],
[28] (
Fig. 1). This breakthrough in plant breeding has made large-scale soybean production in Africa possible—an opportunity that African farmers must seize to have a share of China’s soybean market. Moreover, field studies have shown that the promiscuous-nodulating TGx soybean cultivars bred by IITA scientists exhibit high nodulation and N
2 fixation with native rhizobia in African soils
[10],
[27],
[29]. For example, Gyogluu et al.
[21] have shown that inoculating the TGx genotypes with
Bradyrhizobium strains effectively increased plant growth by 32%, N content by 45%, N
2 fixation by 64%, and grain yield by 12% compared with the uninoculated control. Clearly, the constraint of nodulation and N
2 fixation hindering soybean cultivation in Africa has been removed, giving African farmers the opportunity to contribute to China’s soybean market. However, because commercial inoculant strains can lose their N
2-fixing efficacy with frequent culturing, there is a need for rigorous and continuous germplasm evaluation in combination with the development of new, high N
2-fixing and well-adapted native rhizobial strains that can nodulate and sustain Africa’s soybean exports to China. This could include the use of genetic engineering to target gene editing in soybeans and rhizobia for enhanced soybean production in Africa.
4. Climate constraints to large-scale soybean production in Africa
Currently, soybeans are widely grown in regions of the globe between the latitudes of 53°N and 35°S—mainly in temperate regions in Asia and North America and in rainy tropical South America
[22], where most high-yielding varieties have been developed. However, Africa’s agricultural area lies between the latitudes of 15°N and 35°S in sub-Saharan regions, where the weather is hot and dry
[23]. That is, the soybean varieties currently cultivated by the leading soybean producers were bred not for Africa but for high economic yields suited to the climatic conditions of Asia and North and South America, which differ significantly from Africa’s diverse climates
[30]. More specifically, soybean seed germination occurs best at 15–22 °C, with optimal flowering at 20–25 °C and seed maturation at 15–22 °C, whereas Africa lies within latitude 20° of the equator, with much higher temperatures. Temperatures exceeding 35 °C are reported to trigger early senescence in soybean plants, significantly reducing flowering and grain yield
[31],
[32],
[33]. Because soybean is sensitive to the photothermal conditions of low-latitude areas
[33],
[34], there is a need to breed varieties suitable for African conditions. However, developing such Africa-specific soybean varieties would require the manipulation of photothermal regulatory genes. Fortunately, a group of major genes that regulate photoperiodism and thermal responses in soybean have been identified
[28],
[35],
[36],
[37],
[38],
[39],
[40], indicating potential to improve the wider adaptability of soybean to different regions, including Africa.
China’s rich soybean germplasm collection and conservation
[41] can facilitate the development of elite soybean cultivars resistant to abiotic and biotic stress in Africa. Eleven gene loci in soybean, including
E1–
E4,
E6–
E11, and the
J-gene, have been identified as being involved in soybean photoperiodic growth regulation. A recent review by Wu et al.
[33] offered an in-depth update on these genes, along with other genes involved in regulating photothermal flowering time, such as
GmFTs,
GmLHY,
GmEID,
GmTFL,
GmSOC, and
GmFUL. Therefore, the photothermal dependence of soybean flowering and seed maturation (
Fig. 1), which would have otherwise limited Africa from investing in China’s lucrative soybean market, can be resolved, paving the way for the introduction of high-yielding soybean from China into Africa.
5. Socio-economic opportunities for promoting large-scale soybean production in Africa
Although China produced 20.8 million tonnes of soybean in 2023, it imported 99.41 million tonnes, largely from Brazil (74.5%) and the United States (24.2%), which earned 38.9 billion USD for the Brazilian and 17.9 billion USD for the US economies
[2],
[3],
[42]. Argentina (1.3%) was the third leading exporter of soybeans to China in 2023, with a net total of 620 324 tonnes bringing an income of about 937 million USD to the Argentinian economy. China’s rising soybean imports are driven by its limited arable land, large and increasing population, fast economic growth, expanded soy-food development due to shifting dietary preferences toward protein-rich food, and high demand for protein-rich feed for its livestock industry. Thus, China is predicted to remain an import-dependent country for soybeans for a long time.
The high demand for soybeans in China is an opportunity for Africa to improve its GDP through the production and export of soybeans. With its limited agricultural land area, China can depend on Africa's 445 million hectares of uncultivated arable land (65% of the continent’s total land size) for an increased supply of soybeans
[4],
[5]. However, the post-coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) economies of African countries are highly distressed, with very little growth in continental GDP and high levels of unemployment and poverty (
Fig. 2). Embarking on the large-scale commercial production of soybean could increase food security for the over 342 million people experiencing severe food shortages in Central, East, and West Africa
[29], reduce poverty, and raise GDPs in individual countries across Africa (
Fig. 2). A programmed approach to large-scale soybean production in Africa could also create jobs for millions of people along the entire food supply chain, from production to processing, marketing, and consumption, thus enhancing agri-business in the African continent.
Agriculture is the backbone of any country’s economy and the exit point of poverty. Of Africa’s 1.48 billion people in 2023, more than 60% were under the age of 25 years
[43]; moreover, by 2030, young Africans are expected to constitute 42% of global youth
[38]. This youth dividend could be directed toward Africa’s agricultural modernization plan, especially in promoting commercial soybean production for food security and bioprocessing. This process could upskill the youth and create professional jobs in the agricultural sector. Furthermore, engaging the continent’s youth in commercial soybean production for export to China could change people’s mindset toward seeing agriculture as a business rather than a means of subsistence. The multiplier effect of this approach would be the promotion of youth interest in studying agricultural sciences and learning new technologies to promote a modernized agricultural production system in Africa using science, technology, and innovation (STI).
6. An enabling STI environment between China and Africa: A catalyst for stimulating increased soybean production in Africa
Chinese leadership has recently indicated its strong support for transforming and modernizing African agriculture, paving the way for joint research into and transfer of germplasm and other biological materials for increased agricultural yields in Africa. For example, at the High-Level Roundtable Dialogue with African Leaders in Pretoria in August 2023, the Chinese president announced China’s plan to establish the China–Africa Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Alliance (CAASTIA) to fast-track agricultural modernization and increase food security in Africa. More recently, at the 2024 Beijing Summit of FOCAC, the Chinese president again reaffirmed the support of both China and Africa for the establishment and implementation of CAASTIA by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS) and the African Academy of Sciences (AAS). CAASTIA’s aims are to build platforms for agricultural technology cooperation and exchanges and to organize events to promote China–Africa STI and its outcomes, in order to facilitate the coordinated development of agricultural technology and industry in China and Africa
[18] (
Fig. 2).
The current STI climate between China and Africa is clearly one of goodwill and is thus a major enabler of efforts towards large-scale soybean production in Africa for food and nutritional security, as well as for export to China (
Fig. 2). Therefore, the implementation of CAASTIA by the CAAS and the AAS holds huge potential to promote science and technology, as well as innovation and entrepreneurship, thereby furthering the socio-economic development of the people in China and Africa (
Fig. 2).
In addition to supporting capacity building and the cultivation of talents, CAASTIA aims to support value-added trade in agriculture by strengthening the knowledge sharing of agricultural technology and applying innovation. To fast-track Africa’s agricultural modernization agenda, CAASTIA is committed to implementing FOCAC Beijing Action Plan (2025–2027). It will do so by launching China–Africa modern agriculture technology demonstrations and joint training centers, supporting Chinese and African scientific research institutions in setting up joint laboratories and joint research centers in the fields of modernized agriculture and green development, and working for the establishment of a China–Africa seed technology research and innovation platform at the National Nanfan Research Institute of the CAAS in Sanya. In addition, CAASTIA will lead a joint research center for digital agriculture to promote the application of agricultural remote-sensing and big data technology in Africa. In the short term, however, it may be necessary to transfer technology to Africa in the form of high-yielding crop varieties, drought-tolerant grain crops, fertilizer inputs, improved animal breeds, and agricultural machinery and implements, either as direct intervention by the Chinese government and scientists, or as outcomes of the outlined programs in the long term.
7. Environmental challenges of expanding soybean cultivation in Africa
The United States–China trade conflict has affected soybean supply to China
[44],
[45],
[46], leading to a call for China to diversify its sources of soybean imports
[46]. Although Africa would have been an obvious alternative source of soybean export to China, it is not yet a soybean-producing continent. However, it is not too late for Africa to embark on large-scale soybean production in order to capture part of the global soybean market, so long as it is mindful of the environmental cost of expanded soybean production, as reported for Brazil
[47],
[48],
[49]. Even then, some studies found that the increased soybean production in the Amazon of Brazil was due more to cropland expansion into previously cleared pasture areas (74%) than to deforestation (26%)
[49]. Another study showed that 80% of direct deforestation was due to clearance for cattle rearing, and only 13%–18% was due to soybean production
[48]. While deforestation in parts of the Amazon was predominantly due to pasture expansion, increased soybean production seemed to have displaced pasture to new areas, leading to deforestation elsewhere
[47]. Considering these environmental dynamics, African governments must have policies in place to minimize any damage to the environment through increased soybean production.
In addition to deforestation and land-use changes, water scarcity could pose a challenge to commercial soybean production in Africa. Water is a major factor limiting crop yields globally and could affect large-scale soybean production in Africa, especially in a changing climate. However, many Africa-wide regions are naturally riverine, and dug-up dams could provide water sources for irrigating soybean crops in villages and local communities. Interestingly, South Africa, which is the 30th driest country in the world, is ironically the leading producer of soybeans in Africa. The use of borehole water to irrigate soybean crops is the norm in South Africa, suggesting that drilling boreholes in Africa could provide water sources to supplement the rain-fed production of commercial soybean.
8. Business matchmaking for commercial soybean production in Africa
Agricultural finance and credit facilities are not readily available to farmers in Africa. Fast-tracking large-scale soybean production in Africa would, therefore, require a formal or informal engagement system between African and Chinese investors. Undoubtedly, some Chinese businesses may want to invest in soybean production and processing in Africa but currently lack African partners, which is a constraint. A business matchmaking system is therefore needed to enable Chinese and African businesses to meet, discuss, and co-invest in establishing a commercial soybean industry in Africa (
Fig. 3). Such investments would be a third major enabler of the development for soybean production in Africa, in addition to the elimination of biological and climate constraints and the many China–Africa STI cooperation enablers that currently exist.
At each FOCAC Summit, Chinese and African leaders sit together to discuss trade and political affairs. In the same way, Chinese and African entrepreneurs should meet to discuss business investment and the practical aspects of co-investment, especially in agriculture for food security and bioprocessing. Similarly, in addition to their individual research collaborations, Chinese and African scientists should hold separate sessions on China–Africa scientific cooperation and collaboration to set the agenda for strategic priority areas for future research engagement and cooperation, to be implemented by the Chinese and African leaderships.
By virtue of its networks in China and Africa and its relationship with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (MARA), CAASTIA should play a significant role in the business matchmaking between Chinese and African investors. In this way, the commercial production of soybeans in Africa can be fast-tracked into a reality. Building business partnerships between China and Africa for investment in soybean production is a major prerequisite for success in any attempt to establish Africa’s soybean industry. The absence of agricultural subsidies in Africa and the very low chance of obtaining agricultural credit and financing from African banks provide a compelling argument for MARA’s intervention with initial funding or capital.
9. Conclusions
In conclusion, in 2023, the global soybean trade volume with China reached 99.41 million tonnes, valued at 57.7 billion USD—mainly imported from Brazil (74.5%, 38.9 billion USD), the United States (24.2%, 17.9 billion USD), and Argentina (1.3%, 937 million USD). With its vast arable land, Africa could contribute to the soybean trade with China and thereby boost its economies. However, biotic and abiotic constraints may limit Africa’s potential for soybean production. As an introduced legume, soybean in Africa lacks compatible native rhizobia for N2 fixation. Additionally, Africa’s location within 20° of the equators and its higher temperatures can induce early plant senescence, reducing flowering and decreasing grain yield. This necessitates the continuous breeding of soybean cultivars that are well-adapted to African climates for successful large-scale soybean production. The current STI climate between China and Africa is friendly and can promote large-scale soybean production for food security and export. Moreover, the implementation of CAASTIA by the CAAS and the AAS could further boost Africa’s soybean production and trade.
The slow growth of Africa’s post-COVID-19 economies, as well as the continent’s rising unemployment and growing poverty, can be mitigated through large-scale soybean production in Africa. Here, business matchmaking between Chinese and African investors, assisted by CAASTIA, is an important step toward the commercial production of soybeans in Africa. The absence of agricultural subsidies in Africa and the very low chance of obtaining agricultural credit and financing from African banks provide a compelling argument for MARA’s intervention with initial funding or capital with predetermined repayment terms.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Vincent Ninkuu: Writing – original draft. Tianfu Han: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. Felix D. Dakora: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Felix D. Dakora is grateful to the National Nanfan Research Institute for hosting him and to National Research Fundation, Tshwane University of Technology, and the South African Research Chair in Agrochemurgy and Plant Symbioses for their continued support of his research. This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFD1201300) and the Nanfan Special Project of CAAS (YBXM2428 to Tianfu Han).
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