全程氨氧化细菌在水和污水处理系统中的发生和作用综述

Naga Raju Maddela ,  Zhihao Gan ,  孟雅冰 ,  范福强 ,  孟凡刚

工程(英文) ›› 2022, Vol. 17 ›› Issue (10) : 196 -206.

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工程(英文) ›› 2022, Vol. 17 ›› Issue (10) : 196 -206. DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2021.07.024

全程氨氧化细菌在水和污水处理系统中的发生和作用综述

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Occurrence and Roles of Comammox Bacteria in Water and Wastewater Treatment Systems: A Critical Review

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摘要

脱氮是水处理厂和污水处理厂的关键过程。作为一种新型的生物脱氮过程,全程氨氧化(comammox, CMX)细菌的发现颠覆了学术界对于NH3需两步转化为NO3 的传统认知,拓宽了学术界对NH3生物氧化转化为NO3 的传统理论。与典型硝化细菌相比,CMX细菌具有显著优势,如高生物量生产率、对营养和生长限制条件的强适应性等,引起了人们对CMX细菌在污水处理中应用潜力的广泛关注。鉴于目前较缺乏关于CMX细菌与可持续水和污水处理过程关联性的全面综述,本文旨在讨论CMX细菌在去除水和污水中氮和污染物的作用及应用。本文从分支和亚分支水平考察了CMX细菌的代谢多样性,并关注CMX细菌在工程系统中的分布、生态位分化、共生关系及CMX细菌与典型硝化细菌的相互作用,更好地了解CMX细菌的生理、生态学特征。此外,本文提出了基于CMX细菌应激反应与反应器适应性的理论过程,并评估了CMX细菌直接或协同降解微污染物的代谢潜力,为CMX细菌在污水处理厂中的广泛应用提供重要理论基础。最后,本文总结了未来的研究方向,这对于深入理解CMX细菌至关重要。

Abstract

Nitrogen removal is a critical process in water treatment plants (WTPs) and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The recent discovery of a novel bacterial process, complete ammonia oxidation (comammox, CMX), has refuted a century-long perception of the two-step conversion of NH3 to NO3. Compared with canonical nitrifiers, CMX bacteria offer undeniable advantages, such as a high growth yield propensity and adaptability to nutrient- and growth-limiting conditions, which collectively draw attention to validate the aptness of CMX bacteria to wastewater treatment. As there has been no comprehensive review on the relevance of CMX bacteria for sustainable water and wastewater treatment, this review is intended to discuss the roles and applications of CMX in the removal of nitrogen and pollutants from water and wastewater. We took into account insights into the metabolic versatilities of CMX bacteria at the clade and subclade levels. We focused on the distribution of CMX bacteria in engineered systems, niche differentiation, co-occurrence and interactions with canonical nitrifiers for a better understanding of CMX bacteria in terms of their ecophysiology. Conceptualized details on the reactor adaptability and stress response of CMX bacteria are provided. The potential of CMX bacteria to degrade micropollutants either directly or co-metabolically was evaluated, and these insights would be an indispensable advantage in opening the doors for wider applications of CMX bacteria in WWTPs. Finally, we summarized future directions of research that are imperative in improving the understanding of CMX biology.

关键词

全程氨氧化细菌 / 污水处理 / 脱氮 / 微污染物降解 / 反应器运行

Key words

Comammox bacteria / Wastewater treatment / Nitrogen removal / Micropollutant degradation / Reactor operation

引用本文

引用格式 ▾
Naga Raju Maddela,Zhihao Gan,孟雅冰,范福强,孟凡刚. 全程氨氧化细菌在水和污水处理系统中的发生和作用综述[J]. 工程(英文), 2022, 17(10): 196-206 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2021.07.024

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1、 引言

近年来,高效生物脱氮引起人们广泛关注[1‒3]。全程氨氧化(comammox, CMX)细菌的发现颠覆了人们对于脱氮过程的认知,该细菌可将氨(NH3)从亚硝酸盐(NO2-)完全氧化成硝酸盐(NO3-)。CMX细菌在自然系统[4‒7]和工程系统[8‒11]中都有广泛的报道,表明该细菌对不同硝化生境的广泛适应性及氮循环的重要作用。CMX细菌具有较高的生物量生产率[12],对水处理厂(WTP)和污水处理厂(WWTP)具有较强的适应性,特别适合低溶解氧和低细胞损失率(如生物膜)相关的处理系统。因此,对硝化环境的探索引起了人们的广泛关注,这有助于了解CMX细菌(特别是Nitrospira sp. clade A)的特性[13‒17]。Sato等[18] 在使用耦合反应器系统将有机氮转化为高质量硝酸盐溶液(用作水培肥料)的过程中,从硝化反应器中发现大量与CMX Nitrospira相关的操作分类单元(OTU);其中,CMX氨单加氧酶(AMO)的表达量相较传统反应器提高了500倍。而在另一项长期实验中,4种抗生素(即氨苄青霉素、卡那霉素、林可霉素和甲氧苄啶)也可成功富集活性污泥中不同系统发育关系的CMX Nitrospira [19]。类似地,最新研究表明,CMX细菌在污水处理厂中独具优势,如抗生素的生物转化[20‒21]和重金属耐受性[22]、减少实验室规模间歇曝气序批式反应器中氧化亚氮(N2O)的产生[23]、低温耐受性[24]、在三级生物转盘(RBC)的生物膜中占优势地位[10]、可存在于尿液处理膜生物反应器中[25]等,表明CMX细菌具有全面多样的功能。

关于CMX细菌存在的假说于2006年提出[26],随后于2015年得到证实,而基于CMX细菌的水处理厂或污水处理厂的应用尚未见报道[7,27]。目前,学者已从不同角度对CMX细菌进行了研究,如生态位偏好和分化[28‒30]、共存关系[31‒32]、合作与竞争作用[11,33‒34]、代谢多样性[35]、污染物转化[36]、酶学[37‒39]、生物化学和生理学[40‒41],以及分支水平的分子检测等[42]。此外,针对CMX细菌对季节变化和外部扰动的响应也得到了广泛探索[21,43‒47]。这些研究揭示了CMX工艺应用于水处理厂或污水处理厂的潜在前景。

虽然,CMX细菌的反应机制[38]和用于将NH3氧化为NO3-的酶[27]具有独特性,但该类菌在其他方面也存在较大差异。例如,菌株水平的研究发现,并非所有类型的CMX Nitrospira都可以体外培养[48]。此外,clade A和clade B的CMX细菌对外部扰动的响应性也存在显著差异[49]。因此,CMX Nitrospira具有独特的生态位需求[13,16,30],了解这些需求不仅有助于认识CMX细菌如何抵御来自典型硝化细菌[如氨氧化古细菌(AOA)、氨氧化细菌(AOB)和亚硝酸盐氧化细菌(NOB)]的竞争,同时揭示它们与典型硝化细菌的共存机制[8,32,50‒51]。值得注意的是,多物种组合是群落功能的关键驱动因素,这可能引发一些对CMX细菌生态位的疑虑,即所有分支或者子分支的CMX细菌是否具有相似类型的共存细菌。因此,CMX细菌的功能和生态位决定因素之间应当具有密切的联系。另外,生理、生化和分子研究表明,CMX细菌具有广泛的代谢潜力,如通过代谢途径[36,52‒53]和共代谢途径[54‒58]增强对污水中微污染物的去除。上述研究为CMX细菌在可持续污水处理过程中的工程应用提供理论指导。

迄今为止,水处理厂和污水处理厂中CMX细菌的存在已被广泛报道[8,10,15,17,59‒67]。先前的综述主要从CMX细菌的基因组[8]、N2O排放[64]、酶学和代谢模型[65]进行阐述。然而,对于CMX细菌在自然和工程系统中的分布、生态位分化、共存关系、代谢功能多样性、与其他细菌的相互作用、反应器适应性、应激反应和共代谢生物转化等方面尚未完全了解。因此,本文旨在综述以上因素,有助于CMX细菌在水处理厂和污水处理厂中的应用。

2、 CMX细菌的普遍性

2.1 自然和工程系统

本文总结了CMX细菌在不同自然和工程系统中的分布和丰度,以揭示氮循环中微生物硝化反应的生态学原理(图1)[48,68]。基于编码氨单加氧酶(amoA)系统发育亚基A的基因,两种新型CMX Nitrospira代表两种不同的分支,即clade A和clade B [7]。在多种生态系统中均可检测到隶属于clade A和clade B的CMX细菌[68],表明它们广泛存在于环境。近年来,可培养和不可培养的Nitrospira分别存在于subclade A1和subclade A2 [48]。在土壤和淡水生态系统[69]、水处理厂和污水处理厂[31]、地下水砂滤器[9]、水产养殖池[70]和硝化生物膜[64]等环境中均检测到CMX Nitrospira,表明这些生态环境可用作硝化反应的平台。与污水处理厂[60]和土壤[71]相比,水处理厂[9]中CMX Nitrospira似乎更丰富。此外,clade A和clade B在相同微环境中的丰度往往不同。例如,森林土壤中,clade B比clade A更丰富。相比之下,水稻土中clade B的丰度比clade A的丰度减少了14倍[49]。值得注意的是,clade B比clade A对外部环境更敏感。例如,NH4+调整对clade A的丰度没有显著影响,而clade B的丰度显著增加(P < 0.05)[49]。类似地,饮用水分配系统中残留氯胺[(1.74 ± 0.21) mg·L-1]的存在有利于向类Nitrospira的OTU转变[72]。值得注意的是,不同引物对于识别CMX细菌的分支信息具有不同的匹配率(图2)[48]。例如,引物A378f与CMX clade A(subclade A1和subclade A2)具有较高的匹配率(与amoA基因匹配率为80%~90%),但与clade B和AOB的匹配率较低(图2),表明clade A和clade B之间的遗传潜力存在巨大差异。

图1 广泛分布的CMX细菌。在全球(b)和7个广泛定义的栖息地(a)中,995个元基因组中Nitrospira物种(共68个)的分布。(c)CMX Nitrospira是分布最广的(低丰度,覆盖率低于1),而非典型的Nitrospira为高丰度且覆盖度高于1 [68]。(d)用CMX特异性引物组的部分巢式 PCR分析不同生境中CMX细菌的clade水平分布[48]。

图2 引物与不同CMX分支和AOB的amoA基因序列的匹配度(%)[48]。序列从参考文献描述的公共数据库中的宏基因组或元转录组数据集中提取。

在大型污水处理厂中,CMX细菌是一类重要的NH3氧化菌[7]。一对专门针对CMX amoA基因设计的引物显示,污水处理厂中Nitrospira nitrosa数量占细菌总数的94.34% [60],是定量聚合酶链反应(qPCR)所得AOB amoA基因的183倍。与AOB相比,CMX Nitrospira的优势也体现在市政污水处理硝化池中,研究发现,运行400 d时,CMX Nitrospira在氨氧化菌群中占比达94% [73]。类似地,在有机碳充足的硝化-反硝化系统中,CMX Nitrospira也比AOB Nitrospira更具优势[74]。与其他硝化群落相比,CMX细菌在污水处理厂(尤其在水处理厂)中具有显著的竞争优势,表明主流CMX的工程应用是有希望的(表1 [8,12,14,41,43,70,75‒77])。尽管CMX细菌具有NH3和NO2-氧化的完整酶系统,仍应选择适当的标记物来表征这些酶的存在和丰度。例如,CMX Nitrospira与专一NO2-氧化的Nitrospira的亚硝酸盐氧化还原酶(Nxr)非常相似[37],并不适合作为CMX Nitrospira的标记物。

表1 全程氨氧化细菌与典型硝化细菌的比较

CharacterCMX bacteriaCanonical nitrifiers
Km449.2 µmol·L-1 NO2- [12]6‒27 µmol·L-1 NO2- [12]
Energy yield during NH3 oxidationG0 = 384.9 kJ·mol-1 [8]G0 = 274.7 kJ·mol-1 [8]
CO2 fixation pathwayCalvin‒Benson‒Bassham (CBB) cycle [8]Reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) [8]
Oxygen consumption stoichiometry (Y0)Larger (Y0 = 2)Smaller (Y0 = 1.5)
Withstand Cu deficiencyHigh [63]Not withstand [75]
Urease transportersHigh affinity [63]
Oxidative stress-evading mechanismHigh [63]Low
N2O productionLow [63]High
H2 and formate oxidation by 3b bidirectional [NiFe] hydrogenaseYes [76]
High-affinity sulfate permease (SulP)/Solute Carrier 26 (SLC26)-type transporters for broad range substrates (SO42-, HCO3-, Cl-)Yes [76]
Correlation with dissolved oxygen (DO)Negative (r = - 0.77) [43]Positive (r = 0.14‒0.48) [70]
Half-saturation constant on NH30.026 µg-NH3-N·L-1 (oligotrophic life-style) [41]0.077 mg-NH3-N·L-1 [77]
O2 requirement during enrichmentLow (0.2 μg·L-1) [14]High (0.06‒0.8 mg·L-1) [63]

2.2 生态位差异

CMX Nitrospira对不同生境中的资源分布具有不同的响应机制。例如,水中溶解氧(DO)波动不会影响CMX群落[28]。通过比较基因组学研究发现,其原因可能是CMX Nitrospira所含基因允许CMX Nitrospira在低氧水平下生长[29]。与典型硝化细菌相反,CMX Nitrospira的基因组结果表明CMX Nitrospira可以通过使用外部亚硝酸盐同化硝酸盐。此外,其他决定CMX Nitrospira生态位的潜在因素,包括亚硝酸盐水平(活性污泥)[13]、氮沉降升高(森林土壤)[30]和pH值决定的NH3可用性(农业/森林土壤)[16,30]。然而,通过水平转移NH3氧化[29]和羟胺氧化还原酶[68]的编码基因,CMX Nitrospira的子分支可快速与其他典型硝化细菌的生态位分离。研究表明,CMX Nitrospira的基因特征受生物因素影响[32]。生态位分化是形成微生物群落结构的重要决定因素[78]。然而,关于CMX Nitrospira在生境中的生态位特化、偏好与分化信息十分匮乏,特别是在不同的营养状态和氧浓度环境中[28,40]。因此,应通过关注早期群落的代谢能力和比较基因组学,进一步研究CMX Nitrospira和典型硝化细菌之间的生态位分离情况。此外,前人也探索了自然环境(水生[28]、土壤[16,30,40]和工程环境[73,79])中CMX Nitrospira的生态位差异和分离。然而,为了更深入地了解CMX Nitrospira在各种环境中的生态位分化,包括栖息地异质性、环境条件和生物相互作用,仍需要更多基于反应器的研究。

2.3 基因水平的功能

众所周知,CMX细菌可与不同的典型细菌共存,如NOB [32]、AOA [8,50]、AOB [8,51]和厌氧氨氧化菌[34]等,表明CMX Nitrospira与其他典型群落之间存在大量的相互作用。CMX细菌的amoA-Niño基因与典型硝化细菌和其他细菌的选择性基因之间存在着显著正相关关系[图3(a)[43] ]。例如,在淡水贻贝生境中,Nitrospira inopinata(CMX中大量的氮循环基因有利于Nitrospira moscoviensis(NOB)发挥不同的代谢功能[32]。相较于Nitrospira moscoviensisNitrospira inopinata 拥有更多的氮循环基因,而两种菌株之间的代谢共享是决定它们共生于贻贝生境的关键。CMX Nitrospira拥有一套完整的基因(urtABCDE),对尿素转运系统具有高度亲和力,而Nitrospira moscoviensis则缺乏该基因的完整序列(只有UrtA)[32]。在极低的氧气浓度下,CMX Nitrospira更倾向于氧化NH3而不是NO2-,有利于CMX Nitrospira与厌氧氨氧化菌共存[27]。此外,硝酸盐和总氮的浓度分别与CMX的subclade A1和subclade A2呈现正相关关系[51],说明这些子分支可能对共存的典型硝化细菌有不同的响应行为。因此,应在子分支水平上评估CMX Nitrospira的共存情况,以揭示该菌在水和污水处理氮转化系统中与其他细菌在合作竞争关系方面的不确定性[80],从而有助于水处理厂和污水处理厂的工艺设计和运行。

图3 amoA-Niño的Pearson相关性[43]。(a)CMX细菌与包括典型硝化菌在内的其他细菌共存。amoA-Niño与其他基因的相关性。(b)amoA-Niño基因与环境因子的相关性研究。AMX:氨氧化;DN:硝化菌;DO:溶解氧。显著性分析:双边检验* ≤ 0.05,** ≤ 0.01。

综上,与AOA相似,CMX Nitrospira广泛存在于自然水域、饮用水系统和贫营养污水中,这可能与典型硝化细菌在贫营养条件下的低增长率相关。CMX在低氧气浓度下的高活性意味着可以开发一个低成本的脱氮过程。因此,应通过进一步的实验确定工程系统中CMX细菌和典型硝化细菌的边界条件。

3、 CMX细菌的生理和生化潜力

3.1 代谢功能的多样性

部分CMX Nitrospira可以以O2或NO3-为最终电子受体进行呼吸作用,并氧化不同的底物,如NH3、H2、甲酸盐和NO2- [35]。因此,代谢功能的多样性使这些细菌在多种生境中定殖。这些细菌可以通过AMO氧化NH3,并通过还原柠檬酸循环固定CO2。由单细胞(Nitrospira inopinata)动力学[38]证实,由于对NH3的高亲和力,CMX Nitrospira inopinata在贫营养环境中的数量通常高于其他氨氧化微生物。纯培养的CMX细菌(如Nitrospira inopinata)的半饱和常数[ Km(app) ]为63 nmol·L-1,比AOB低4~2500倍[41],表明该菌具有较高的NH3亲和力。CMX细菌clade A的NH3半饱和常数则低得多(即49 nmol·L-1)[41]。然而,CMX细菌对NO2-的亲和力比其他NOB低[41]。与NH3类似,CMX Nitrospira在完全硝化过程中也可以利用氰酸盐[74]。此外,CMX Nitrospira更适应贫营养环境[35],并有助于它在与AOA竞争过程中取得优势地位[40]。即使CMX NitrospiraamoA基因丰度高于AOA或AOB,当Km(app)值重叠时,CMX Nitrospira和其他典型硝化细菌(如AOA)在贫营养和低NH3的生境中也存在竞争。此外,尽管clade A的丰度在各个pH值中均高于clade B,土壤pH值的变化(4.0~9.0)对CMX细菌clade A和clade B的amoA基因拷贝数仅有轻微的影响[40]。然而,如amoA-Niño基因丰度[图3(b)]所示,pH值、DO和温度对CMX细菌有显著影响。宏基因组结果表明,CMX Nitrospira能够在尿素浓度低且波动大的污水处理厂中成功繁殖[40],主要因为该体系中存在编码尿素酶蛋白、高亲和力尿素转运体(urtABCDE)、尿素羧化酶相关转运体(uctT)和外膜孔蛋白(fmdC)[7,27]。最近研究发现,由于Nitrospira inopinata的基因组中缺乏NO还原酶,CMX细菌在硝化过程中释放的N2O低于AOB [6]。事实上,典型硝化细菌的生物膜存在较高的N2O排放情况[64]。因此,CMX过程中较少的N2O排放有助于减少水厂设计和操作成本,减少废水处理过程中N2O的排放。此外,由于[Ni-Fe]氢化酶(3b组)的存在,CMX Nitrospira的代谢潜力使这些细菌表现出不同的作用[12],如①通过重新氧化NAD(P)H产生H2,同时在发酵过程中维持细胞的氧化还原平衡;②氧化H2以提供电子用于CO2还原;③将元素硫或多硫化物还原成H2S。此外,目前还不太清楚CMX细菌如何在NH3和NO2-氧化模式之间切换。在由快速重力砂滤材料组成的反应器中使用标记的NH4+和NO2-作为底物时,CMX Nitrospira并未表现出专性氧化外源NO2-的偏好[81],这与Nitrospira inopinata [7,27]一致。值得注意的是,ClO3-及NO螯合物(PTIO)对CMX Nitrospira [81]及Nitrospira inopinata [6]的NH3氧化作用具有一定的抑制作用。事实上,ClO3-还原会产生有毒的ClO2-,对CMX细菌的代谢(包括NH3氧化)产生毒害作用。不同分支的CMX细菌与AOB和AOA的代谢潜力差异及其与污水处理厂的相关性见表2 [8,82‒91]。此外,在CMX Nitrospira中可能存在水平基因转移,并通过这种方式获得某些额外的代谢功能[10,14,92]。

表2 复合氧化细菌及其典型硝化器的代谢潜力

MetabolismBacteria [8]Relevance of metabolism to wastewater treatment
Clade A CMXClade B CMXCanoni-cal Nitro-spiraAOBAOA
Ammonia oxidation++++++++++++Anthropogenic discharge of nitrogen to freshwater (in China) is 14.5 ± 3.1 megatons of nitrogen per year which is 2.7 times higher than the estimated safe nitrogen discharge threshold ((5.2 ± 0.7) Mt of nitrogen per year) [82]
Nitrite oxidation+++++++++
Nitrite reductase+++++++++++
Assimilatory nitrite reduction+++++++++
NO reductase+
H2 oxidation+++++H2 can be an alternative energy source for aerobic respiration in the absence of nitrifying reactions. It suggests the ecological flexibility of N-cycling bacteria, which can fix CO2 with H2 as a sole electron source [83]
Formate oxidation++++++Formate oxidation propensity confirms the electrochemical active nature of bacteria [84], and such bacteria are effective in the removal of organic pollutants (e.g., 17β-estradiol) in aerobic aquatic environments [85]
Cytochrome bd-like oxidase+++++++++Expression of oxidases could be considered as one of the stress-evading mechanisms. For instance, stress caused by DO perturbation led microbial community changes and higher activities of peroxidase and cytochromes, and there was a high percent removal (57%‒92%) of organic micropollutants during WWT [86]
Cytochrome aa3 oxidase++++++
Cytochrome bd quinol oxidase+++++
Urea degradation+++++++++Performance of many biological WWT processes are inhibited by urea [87], and urea removal is crucial for a successful treatment process
Reductive TCA cycle+++++++++Reductive TCA is an effective energy-yielding and carbon fixation pathway compared with CBB [8]. Type of C-fixation pathway is important in the C sequestration and suppression of CO2 emission by bacteria; importantly, selection of the C-fixation pathway is highly influenced by NH4+-N and NO2--N concentrations [88]
CBB cycle+++
Thaumarchaeal 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate (HP/HB) cycle+++The most energy-efficient CO2 fixation pathway in the presence of 2 and nutrient-limited environments [89]
Polyhydroxy-alkaotes (PHA) synthesis+PHA and glycogen are important storages during biological phosphorous removal from the wastewater [90]. Alternative synthesis and oxidation of intracellular storages have significant impact on N2O emissions during biological nutrient removal [91]
Glycogen synthesis++++++++++++

3.2 酶学

CMX细菌的胞外代谢为NH3完全氧化为NO3-的八电子氧化过程[38]。CMX介导的硝化作用可能依赖于amohaonxr等基因的表达[27]。宏基因组的研究证实RBC中的CMX Nitrospira可以通过ure基因将尿素水解为NH3 [10]。在尿素富集培养的CMX Nitrospira clade A中也发现了该基因[29]。然而,由于缺少fdh基因,CMX Nitrospira clade A不能利用甲酸盐作为替代电子供体,而CMX Nitrospira clade B则拥有fdh基因[10]。此外,一些CMX Nitrospira可以使用二氢/质子作为替代电子供体/受体,这归功于编码3b组[Ni-Fe]硫磺还原氢酶的hybhyd等基因[11]。通过水平基因转移,CMX Nitrospira不仅可获得氰化酶活性[10],也可获得与氰化酶基因相邻的两个毒素-抗毒素基因[14]。然而,水平基因转移也有助于CMX Nitrospira从非氨氧化菌中获得多种基因,促进整个氨氧化途径[92]。事实上,CMX细菌本身具有氰化酶活性[17]。因此,除了利用游离氨作为底物外,CMX细菌还可以利用各种有机氮化合物。值得注意的是,CMX Nitrospira的其他代谢功能更有利于CMX Nitrospira在污水处理厂中应用。Han等[36]发现,CMX Nitrospira inopinata能够对多种微污染物进行生物转化。其中,多菌灵可由CMX Nitrospira inopinata生物转化,其能量来源为氨而不是亚硝酸盐。这些结果表明,与AOA-或AOB-Nitrospira相比,CMX Nitrospira inopinata的AMO拥有更高的氨亲和力。此外,CMX Nitrospira的酶系统使CMX细菌排放更少的NOy [亚硝酸(HONO)+ 一氧化氮(NO),及NO + 二氧化氮(NO2)] [93],这是全球变暖和环境化学中的关键排放物。简而言之,这些功能酶的存在赋予CMX细菌各种代谢潜力。

3.3 CMX细菌与其他细菌的相互作用

CMX细菌与其他细菌(如典型硝化细菌)之间的相互作用将极大地影响污水处理厂的设计和优化运行。Nitrospira inopinata与NOB而非AOA和AOB显示出明显的正相关关系[43],表明CMX参与的NO2-氧化比NH3氧化更活跃。在循环水产养殖系统中也发现了CMX细菌和NOB的相互作用[31]。尽管这种正相关关系经常出现在其他组合中(如类Nitrospira inopinata CMX和反硝化微生物[32]),但由于复杂的环境因素,目前的研究还未能完全理解CMX细菌和典型硝化细菌之间的多重相关性。特别地,自然环境中很难追踪工程系统中的生物因素。序批式反应器中,部分硝化细菌、CMX和厌氧氨氧化菌的协同作用能够实现98.82%的NH4+-N去除率[34],表明CMX细菌可以在高氮处理过程中发挥合作作用。在低氧条件下,CMX细菌能够将NH3氧化为NO2-,有利于CMX和厌氧氨氧化菌之间的相互作用[11]。研究表明,在地下水快速砂滤过程中,AOB和CMX Nitrospira之间的协同作用可以实现铜诱导的高效硝化[45]。为了解CMX细菌的群落行为,目前已开展CMX细菌群体感应(QS)的相关研究,例如,CMX细菌含有负责合成酰基高丝氨酸内酯(AHL)和细胞外聚合物质(EPS)的基因[77]。事实上,在典型硝化细菌的纯培养物[94]、混合培养物[95]以及自养硝化/反硝化生物膜[96]中均发现QS。CMX细菌的生物膜形成潜力受到ABC转运体(ko02010)和双组分系统(ko02020)所含基因的调控[97],表明CMX细菌更倾向于生长于生物膜中。此外,生物膜反应器中虽然出现了CMX过程[98],但对于它们在这些环境中的群体感应机制尚不清楚[99]。

总之,由于CMX细胞中多种功能基因的表达,代谢功能多样性是CMX Nitrospira的独特特征,表明CMX Nitrospira可以在污水和工业废水中生长。此外,CMX Nitrospira比传统硝化细菌产生的N2O更少,CMX的应用将有助于开发可持续的氮处理过程。

4、 CMX细菌在工程系统中的行为

4.1 反应器适应性

与其他典型硝化细菌相比,CMX Nitrospira具有明显的生理特征,如对NH3Km值较低、µmax较高、每摩尔NH3的蛋白质含量较高,以及以O2:NH3摩尔比为单位计算的O2消耗率较高[8]。对于水质和环境条件波动较大的水处理厂和污水处理厂,这些特性使CMX Nitrospira具有更强的适应性工艺。基于qPCR、16S rRNA基因测序和宏基因组学的多种分子技术,发现在市政污水处理厂的三级生物旋转转盘池中,CMX Nitrospira比AOA和AOB更占优势[10],表明CMX细菌在三级污水处理厂中无处不在。此外,CMX细菌在生物反应器中的存在可以为了解各种环境因素对该类细菌在不同空间和时间分布的影响提供一种途径[59]。对CMX细菌对硝化作用有很大贡献[100]。对从不同工程系统中收集的样品进行分子生物学分析,发现CMX编码的DNA序列(CDS)与总CDS的比值约为0.3%或高于0.6% [图4(a)[15] ]。在脱氯反应器中也发现了CMX Nitrospira的主导地位[图4(b)[72] ],CMX Nitrospira占7.2%~27.4%,是脱氯反应器中硝化作用的主要参与者。以上研究均表明CMX细菌对反应器系统的适应性。

图4 CMX细菌的反应器适应性。(a)在不同国家调查的全规模污水处理厂中,CMX编码DNA序列(% CMX CDS)与总CDS的比值[15]。底物类型(1SS, 2MS)和生物量[ a颗粒,b生物膜,c混合液,d溢流,e下溢,fALT(混合液),g接种物,h活性污泥]。(b)用带条形散点图表示Nitrospira sp.在脱氯反应器中的优势度(平均值加标准偏差)[72]。

但NH3浓度并不是决定工程系统中CMX Nitrospira丰度的唯一因素。即使在NH3浓度很高的污泥样品中,CMX细菌的丰度高低也有很大差异[61,101]。因此,除非对底物范围、需氧量、生长速率和产量以及生物膜形成趋势进行研究,否则较难评估反应器中CMX细菌的丰度。目前对影响clade A和clade B存在和优势的因素尚不清楚[10]。Roots等[73]发现,相比DO为3~5 mg·L-1的传统活性污泥硝化反应器,DO为0.2~1.0 mg·L-1的主流硝化反应器运行400 d后,CMX Nitrospira的铵去除率更高[约为59 mg·(L·d)-1 ]。研究结果表明CMX驱动的低DO硝化反应是传统高DO硝化反应的替代方法。此外,最近的研究发现,CMX细菌能够很好地适应以NH3或NO2-作为唯一氮源的反应器[102]。然而,当使用NH3作为唯一氮源时,CMX细菌的硝化速率是以NO2-为氮源的两倍。这一发现可进一步证实基于CMX过程的应用可行性。CMX细菌与典型硝化细菌的比例及clade A与clade B的比例均受到N-P-K(氮-磷-钾)肥的显著影响(图5)[103]。与其他氨氧化微生物相比,CMX细菌在部分厌氧氨氧化生物反应器中受游离氨的抑制更明显[104]。

图5 营养添加剂对CMX细菌和典型硝化菌的影响[103]。(a)不同长期施肥方式下amoA基因拷贝数的比值。(b)与未处理对照相比,amoA基因拷贝数比例下降或增加百分比。(CMX:comammox细菌;AOA:氨氧化古菌;AOB:氨氧化菌;N:氮;P:磷;K:钾))

较长的污泥停留时间(SRT > 10 d)和附着的生长模式有利于CMX细菌clade A的生长[11],并且SRT是CMX细菌广泛应用的关键决定因素。较长的SRT对反应器系统中的微生物群落有显著影响,如生物膜厚度[105]、微生物生物多样性[106]、生物量浓度[107]和微生物挥发酸产量等[108]。研究表明,在较长的SRT下,CMX Nitrospira对NO2-的积累及N2O的生成存在抑制作用[109]。CMX Nitrospira可在硝化颗粒中富集,且富集的菌群具有较好的脱氮效率[110]。无脊椎动物的黏多糖可以影响自然环境(如海岸沉积物)中的CMX细菌,能够刺激NO3-氧化官能团[111]。近期研究发现,在低DO和NH4+以及较长SRT的工程系统中,CMX Nitrospira的氮去除效率更高[73]。这些发现能够为优化生物反应器构建和运行参数提供潜在依据。此外,定量PCR和PCR实验表明,在污水处理厂中,CMX细菌能够更好地适应生物膜而非悬浮污泥环境[62]。根据amoA基因的系统发育分析发现,不能纯培养的CMX Nitrospira在生物膜中占主导地位[62]。由于目前污水处理厂主要采用生物膜与活性污泥工艺,上述研究对污水处理厂的运行和设计具有重要意义。这也是CMX细菌在以生物膜为主体的水处理厂或饮用水分配系统中广泛存在的潜在原因。

4.2 应激反应

CMX Nitrospira能够承受物理和化学诱导的压力。例如,在NH3饥饿压力下,Nitrospira持续存在于活性污泥中;而在整个“饥饿试验”中,Nitrospira的DNA和互补DNA不受温度波动的影响[44]。一些基因编码酶(如超氧化物歧化酶、过氧化氢酶和几种过氧化物酶)能够保护细菌免受活性氧(ROS)的侵害[17]。CMX细菌能很好地适应含有消毒剂[如过乙酸(PAA)]的水产养殖系统。PAA(每天施用两次,1.1 mg·L-1)于8周后对CMX细菌基因拷贝数产生不利影响,但于第13周时影响逐渐减少[112]。研究表明,CMX细菌对长期化学诱导具有潜在的适应性。当长期施肥时,CMX细菌出现类似的适应性反应[46]。在Cu(II)含量较低的情况下,四环素(TC)对硝化菌群的胁迫有所缓解。在20 mg·L-1 TC浓度条件下,与硝化和反硝化相关的功能基因丰度均受到不利影响;但由于TC在低Cu(II)含量下对酶活性的抑制作用降低,这些不利影响在TC(20 mg·L-1)和Cu(III)(10 mg·L-1)[113]的混合压力下减弱。

波动环境中CMX细菌生活方式的转变也表明该细菌具有较高的环境适应性。例如,CMX细菌能够调控细胞内化合物如多磷酸盐、糖原和多羟基烷酸盐等的生成和降解,为它在恶劣环境中生存提供基础[17]。然而,其他典型硝化细菌的应激反应与CMX细菌不同。例如,Nitrosopumilus maritimus SCM1(一株AOA模式菌)在NH3饥饿和Cu压力胁迫下,用于调控能量产生和生物合成的基因下调[114]。前人研究表明,与典型硝化细菌相比,CMX细菌具有更好的压力适应性。

由于较强的适应性,CMX Nitrospira似乎是反应器环境的潜在耐受菌。对物理和化学压力的耐受性是CMX Nitrospira适应性的关键机制。但一些化学品的出现,如环丙沙星等,可能会显著抑制CMX Nitrospira和脱氮性能[47]。此外,与活性污泥相比,生物膜中的CMX Nitrospira可能具有更高的操作灵活性、更低的空间要求,以及更好的环境波动恢复能力[115],对CMX工艺的实际应用具有重要意义。

5、 水处理厂和污水处理厂的污染物去除情况

5.1 微污染物的降解

CMX细菌能够特异性降解某些微量污染物,为在水处理厂和污水处理厂的应用提供了可能。通过对硝化环境中微污染物的归趋进行分析[36],近期研究发现Nitrospira inopinata对NH3降解AMO系统具有很高的亲和力;且在NH3存在的情况下,能够降解阿苏拉姆、芬六胺、米安色林、番丁胺和多菌灵。调控尿素、胺和氰酸盐利用基因的存在表明,CMX细菌能够潜在降解除游离NH3以外的多种有机氮化合物[52]。此外,增加硝化移动床生物膜反应器中粉末活性炭(PAC)的用量(0~30 mg·L-1),能够提高反应器对4种药物的去除率(约80%);并且在所有采样时间(79~164 d)中,Nitrospira spp.是对照组和PAC添加反应器的主要硝化物种(8%~20%)[53]。然而,CMX细菌在微污染物转化中的作用和机制尚不明晰,仍需进一步深入探究。

在水处理厂或污水处理厂中,硝化细菌对不同微污染物的降解具有重要作用,如布洛芬和奈普生[116]、米安色林和雷尼替丁[117]、磺胺甲恶唑、红霉素、罗红霉素和氟西汀[118]及三氯乙烷[119]等。AMO对药物的羟基化起重要作用。基于酶研究证实,AMO能够氧化多种脂肪族、芳香族碳氢化合物[120]和微污染物[121]。AMO中的其他酶系统,如羟胺氧化还原酶(催化羟胺转化为亚硝酸盐)和亚硝酸盐氧化还原酶(将亚硝酸盐转化为硝酸盐),均能够介导氧化生物转化反应,并在微污染物去除中发挥重要作用[121]。纯氨氧化菌对不同浓度(100~1000 μg·L-1)重金属(如Cu、Ni、Pb和Cd)的耐受性[122]表明硝化菌群可用于重金属污染场所的生物修复。迄今为止,关于CMX细菌是否可成功应用于工程系统中去除微污染物或进行生物转化的相关证据有限[20,36]。然而,未来相关研究需要关注两方面:一方面,需要更多的实际证据确认CMX细菌降解或转化不同微污染物的潜力;另一方面,应深入研究微污染物对CMX细菌的生态毒性或微污染物与CMX细菌的相互作用。

5.2 共代谢生物转化

在NH3氧化的同时,CMX细菌倾向于借助脱氨作用共代谢微污染物,如药物[54‒55]、人工甜味剂(如安赛蜜、阿斯巴甜、甜蜜素、糖精和三氯蔗糖)[56]、磺胺甲恶唑[57]和2-氯苯酚[58]等。由于AMO的共氧化作用,好氧颗粒污泥反应器可在同步硝化过程中强化选定微污染物(如双酚A、奈普生、伊格洛尔、特丁林和碘己醇)的去除效果[123]。同样地,酸性药物(如吉非罗齐、双氯芬酸、贝沙贝特和酮洛芬)和17α-雌二醇在硝化作用下部分降解,但天然雌激素(如17β-雌二醇和雌酮)的降解率在硝化作用被抑制时得以强化[124]。先前研究表明,硝化酶(尤其是AMO)似乎是非特异性的[125],并且能够在硝化反应期间同时降解几种碳氢化合物。这也表明硝化菌群能够广泛应用于水处理厂或污水处理厂中微污染物的去除过程。然而,某些微污染物对硝化过程显示出顽固性或抑制性现象。例如,研究发现硝化活性污泥无法去除双氯芬酸、地西泮、卡马西平和甲氧苄啶。此外,部分新型污染物对细菌具有毒性效应。例如,唑类的取代基能够“修饰”硝化酶的活性位点,抑制硝化作用[126]。虽然,CMX细菌、AOA、AOB和NOB在微污染物的共代谢生物转化中的具体作用尚不明晰,但这些功能细菌的共代谢能力将为水处理提供更多的选择。

微污染物去除或生物共代谢是水处理或污水处理过程的重要特征,而CMX Nitrospira具有该项潜力。目前,尚未出现环境和经济可持续的水处理厂和污水处理厂[127],因为处理后的水或废水中仍存在微污染物[128‒130]。此外,有机微污染物的协同生物代谢普遍存在于处理工艺如活性污泥系统[131]和传统硝化系统[132‒133]中。因此,CMX Nitrospira能够通过共代谢生物转化去除微污染物。

6、 研究空白

CMX的可持续水或污水处理取决于许多变量,目前仍需要进行全面研究。其中包括:

(1)在未来的研究中,应阐明不同营养水平和反应器运行条件下的生态位偏好。尽管已有研究探究了CMX细菌的生态位偏好[13,16,30],但关于CMX细菌不同分支的资源利用、生态位特异性和生态位重叠的研究仍然有限。特别地,当两个物种在资源利用方面具有相似的竞争能力时,往往会出现生态位重叠,而非竞争排斥[134]。

(2)关于CMX细菌中NH3和NO2氧化模式之间的切换仍然未知。环境因素是这种转换的关键驱动因素[135]。与NO2-作为唯一氮源的反应器相比,CMX细菌在添加尿素的反应器中硝化速率更高[102]。然而,很难确定决定氮偏好的因素[10]。

(3)广泛开展以确定边界条件为重点、以反应器为核心的研究,有助于实现CMX细菌的大规模应用。在自然和工程系统中,基于CMX细菌与其他细菌相互作用的研究仍然有限。因此,未来对CMX细菌与其他细菌的相互作用进行探索,将有助于评估CMX细菌反应器的适应性。

(4)深入理解CMX细菌应激反应。CMX细菌中与应激相关的遗传元素有助于理解细菌在非宿主环境中的耐受性机制[136],值得进一步研究。此外,水或废水具有独特的微生物和化学组成,也会对CMX细菌造成胁迫。

(5)CMX细菌在微污染物转化中的作用尚不明晰。解释此转化作用需要深入分析许多问题,如工程生态系统中CMX细菌的丰度、CMX细菌降解微污染物的潜力以及影响CMX细菌去除微污染物的因素。解决这些问题有助未来设计CMX细菌工艺以高效去除微污染物。

(6)CMX Nitrospira相比于常规硝化细菌具有更高的溶解氧亲和力,并能够在低DO条件下快速生长。然而,关于CMX Nitrospira是否是一种有效的脱氮节能细菌目前尚存疑问,且仍需关注CMX Nitrospira如何调控酶活性以降低其能量需求。

7、 结论

CMX细菌广泛分布于水处理厂和污水处理厂中。相较于共存的典型硝化细菌,CMX细菌具有多种竞争优势,例如,在低溶解氧水平下生长、带有水平基因转移的快速生态位分化、高亲和力的尿素利用以及低溶解氧和高SRT条件下的高效脱氮。此外,CMX细菌可以耐受由多种化学物质引起的长期胁迫,并且能够在氨氧化过程中共代谢某些污染物(如PPCP)。尽管CMX细菌与各种典型硝化细菌共存,CMX细菌各个分支均具有不同的共存群落。因此,利用CMX细菌去除水处理厂或污水处理厂中的氮和微污染物是切实可行的。然而,基于CMX细菌反应器的设计和运行仍需深入研究。

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