麻醉与意识的脑网络研究进展——框架与临床应用

刘军 ,  董康立 ,  孙毅 ,  Ioannis Kakkos ,  黄帆 ,  王国正 ,  齐鹏 ,  陈星 ,  张德林 ,  Anastasios Bezerianos ,  孙煜

工程(英文) ›› 2023, Vol. 20 ›› Issue (1) : 77 -95.

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工程(英文) ›› 2023, Vol. 20 ›› Issue (1) : 77 -95. DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2021.11.013

麻醉与意识的脑网络研究进展——框架与临床应用

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Progress of Brain Network Studies on Anesthesia and Consciousness: Framework and Clinical Applications

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摘要

尽管麻醉与意识之间的关系一直是研究者关注的重点,但目前学界对于麻醉与意识的神经机制理解仍处在初级阶段,极大地限制了麻醉监测和意识评估系统的进一步发展。此外,现有麻醉监测方法难以提供足够的有效信息,对精准麻醉监测的目标构成了障碍。近年来,使用脑网络分析揭示麻醉机制已成为研究热点,其目的是为临床应用提供新的研究思路。针对这一新的研究趋势,本文全面回顾了麻醉相关脑网络研究的最新进展,系统地比较了麻醉和意识的几种潜在的神经机制以及不同层面大脑神经活动的测量方法;从皮层碎片化理论出发,介绍了连通性和网络分析的一些重要的研究方法和相关成果;在总结归纳现有研究成果的基础上,论证了全脑多模态网络数据可以提供现有麻醉监测方法所无法提供的信息;更重要的是,进一步探讨简化脑网络分析方法的可行性,这一方法将会在优化现有的临床麻醉监测系统中发挥重要作用。

Abstract

Although the relationship between anesthesia and consciousness has been investigated for decades, our understanding of the underlying neural mechanisms of anesthesia and consciousness remains rudimentary, which limits the development of systems for anesthesia monitoring and consciousness evaluation. Moreover, the current practices for anesthesia monitoring are mainly based on methods that do not provide adequate information and may present obstacles to the precise application of anesthesia. Most recently, there has been a growing trend to utilize brain network analysis to reveal the mechanisms of anesthesia, with the aim of providing novel insights to promote practical application. This review summarizes recent research on brain network studies of anesthesia, and compares the underlying neural mechanisms of consciousness and anesthesia along with the neural signs and measures of the distinct aspects of neural activity. Using the theory of cortical fragmentation as a starting point, we introduce important methods and research involving connectivity and network analysis. We demonstrate that whole-brain multimodal network data can provide important supplementary clinical information. More importantly, this review posits that brain network methods, if simplified, will likely play an important role in improving the current clinical anesthesia monitoring systems.

关键词

麻醉 / 脑网络 / 连通性 / 图论分析 / 临床监测系统

Key words

Anesthesia / Brain network / Connectivity / Graph theoretical analysis / Clinical monitoring system

引用本文

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刘军,董康立,孙毅,Ioannis Kakkos,黄帆,王国正,齐鹏,陈星,张德林,Anastasios Bezerianos,孙煜. 麻醉与意识的脑网络研究进展——框架与临床应用[J]. 工程(英文), 2023, 20(1): 77-95 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2021.11.013

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1、 引言

1.1 背景

全身麻醉被定义为在药理作用下的无意识、失忆和无反应[1]。全身麻醉的概念不仅涉及大脑意识活动的暂停,同时也包括由脊髓调节的神经和心理因素的暂停。全球每年有数以千万计的患者接受全身麻醉,其在手术过程中抑制了人们最宝贵的心理属性——意识。麻醉医生诱导安全可逆的无意识(loss of consciousness, LOC)对临床手术来说至关重要。然而,目前临床麻醉监测系统的发展还很滞后,麻醉诱导无意识的神经机制也没有明确定论。

麻醉无意识的研究分为微观和宏观两个层面。在微观层面上,许多研究探讨了全身麻醉药在分子水平上(离子通道、受体等)的作用机制。根据不同麻醉药作用于不同的分子靶点,可能有助于解释麻醉无意识的机制。例如,γ‍-‍氨基丁酸(gamma-aminobutyric acid, GABA)A型(GABAA)受体是大脑中主要的抑制性受体,在麻醉诱导无意识过程中起关键作用。研究发现,GABAA受体的突变会改变大脑对麻醉药的敏感性[2]。N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(N-methyl-D-aspartic acid, NMDA)受体存在于突触前和突触后结构中,也是全身麻醉药物的靶点。大多数吸入麻醉药对NMDA受体均有抑制作用,但不同麻醉药的抑制水平不同[3]。另一方面,全身麻醉药能够打开双孔钾离子通道(tandem two-pore potassium channels, K2Ps)。研究表明,K2P敲除小鼠对吸入麻醉药的敏感性降低,表明K2P通道也是全身麻醉药物的靶点[4]。除了上述三个靶点外,麻醉药对大脑的影响还受其他靶点的介导,但相关研究还不充分[5]。

在宏观层面上,神经影像技术的发展使研究者可以在多个观测尺度上对麻醉过程进行研究。然而,早期麻醉研究和临床试验的结果并不像在最近的研究中那么准确。最初,麻醉研究主要是在临床应用的背景下进行的,主要依靠血压、心率、呼吸等生理指标的测量。然而,这些指标通常反映了意识水平下降引起的间接反应。1965年,最小肺泡浓度(minimum alveolar concentration, MAC)值被提出作为麻醉作用下意识水平的指标[6]。MAC值是一个反映吸入麻醉效果的指标,指的是在一个大气压下,某种吸入性麻醉药和纯氧同时吸入时,能够使50%患者在切皮时无体动反应的肺泡浓度。然而,MAC值仅在躯体水平上评估麻醉水平,是伤害性刺激下脊神经反射的指标,并不等同于麻醉无意识[1,7‒8],同时MAC也会受到镇痛药的影响[9]。为了克服这些指标的局限性,研究人员试图研究麻醉药如何作用于生理靶点,并以此确定麻醉诱导无意识的机制[10]。

除了躯体水平的间接反应,大脑整合信息能力的变化与不同意识状态之间的过渡直接相关,应该作为麻醉和意识研究的重点。根据最近的神经影像学研究结果,研究者提出了几种不同的理论来解释麻醉机制,包括皮层丘脑连接断开[11‒13]、睡眠-觉醒周期中断[5,14‒15]和皮层碎片化[16‒17]。麻醉药可以通过阻断特定大脑区域之间的相互作用和(或)减少信息的传递来产生无意识[18‒20],并且有研究者认为,考虑到丙泊酚和七氟醚在皮层下作用的时间与皮层相比较晚,因此大脑皮层可能是麻醉药的主要作用目标[21]。另一方面,麻醉和睡眠大脑具有明显的相似性:例如,右美托咪定诱导麻醉过程中观察到的纺锤波与正常睡眠时的纺锤波非常相似[22]。自然睡眠和觉醒是由多种唤醒途径控制的,麻醉药可以影响丘脑和皮层,抑制清醒环路,增强睡眠环路[23]。大脑中的睡眠-觉醒周期是一个没有中间过程的双稳态系统,这一特征与患者在麻醉结束后迅速恢复清醒的特点相吻合[5]。虽然全身麻醉药可能影响睡眠-觉醒周期中的各种靶点,但麻醉药的直接靶点仍有待确定[14]。此外,从分子靶点到全脑水平的麻醉神经机制也没有明确定论。全身麻醉药可能通过激活和(或)抑制中枢神经系统内的特定受体来调节大脑不同区域之间的相互作用,最终影响全脑网络并诱导可逆的无意识。

各种神经影像学方法已经与网络分析方法相结合应用到麻醉研究中,然而临床麻醉监测仍以躯体反应水平为主,发展相对滞后。最重要的是,无躯体反应并不一定意味着无意识,麻醉无意识应该从连通性(脑区间相互作用)的角度来判断[24]。理想的麻醉深度(depth of anesthesia, DOA)监测设备应满足以下要求:

(1)准确监测患者镇静状态,与临床镇静效果有较高的相关性;

(2)测量数据准确可靠;

(3)设备紧凑,易于安装和使用;

(4)能够为临床医生决策提供有效信息;

(5)不受电磁与其他设备干扰。

然而,现有的临床麻醉监测系统并不能满足这些要求。在临床手术过程中,麻醉师往往通过观察患者的反应来判断麻醉深度,这种方法高度依赖于麻醉师的经验。此外,麻醉镇静状态的评估有多种标准,包括Ramsay镇静量表(Ramsay Sedation Scale, RSS)[25]、肌肉活动评分量表(Motor Activity Assessment Scale, MAAS)[26]、镇静-躁动量表(Sedation-Agitation Scale, SAS)[27]。这些量表以患者对外部刺激(如声音刺激和伤害性刺激)的反应程度为标准判断麻醉深度。现有的临床麻醉监测方法远远不能满足精准麻醉的需求,患者术中觉醒风险较高。与专门的意识研究不同,临床麻醉监测还需要消除患者对伤害性刺激的反应,防止患者术后回忆起任何术中事件。此外,个体差异问题也是精准麻醉的一大障碍。现有临床麻醉监测方法为了追求便利性而简化了复杂的大脑活动测量方法,忽略了大脑中蕴含的丰富信息。因此,有必要开发一种既可以充分利用这些信息,又可以方便在临床使用的方法,以满足未来精准麻醉的需要。基于脑电图(electroencephalography, EEG)的连通性和网络分析方法为开发能够直接反映全脑水平意识变化的麻醉监测系统提供了新的思路,在发展全面、精准的麻醉监测和消除个体差异等方面拥有巨大的潜力。

1.2 目标和概述

本文在临床麻醉监测背景的基础上,回顾了脑网络技术在麻醉领域的研究进展。本文所引用的文献大多是对麻醉机制的研究,从中可以对麻醉有更清晰、可靠的认识;少数文献探索了麻醉机制研究与临床麻醉监测相结合的方法。通过归纳总结,本文认为功能连通性(functional connectivity, FC)和网络分析方法很有可能在临床麻醉监测中得到应用。为了总结近年来麻醉机制研究的最新进展,明确脑网络研究与临床麻醉监测之间的潜在关系,本文着重回顾了近5年来麻醉与意识研究中基于EEG的网络分析方法的研究成果并归纳总结相关发展趋势。综上所述,本文旨在强调脑连通性和网络分析识别麻醉作用下不同意识状态的潜力,并提出未来值得关注的研究方向,以促进临床麻醉监测的发展。

本文分为以下四个部分:

(1)从微观和宏观两个层面对麻醉机制进行总结概述。在微观层面上,从分子水平介绍了全身麻醉机制;在宏观层面上,讨论了三个潜在的麻醉无意识机制:皮层/丘脑连接断开、睡眠-觉醒周期中断和皮层碎片化。

(2)介绍了麻醉研究中常用的神经影像学方法,包括功能性磁共振成像(functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI)、正电子发射断层扫描(positron emission tomography, PET)、功能性近红外光谱(functional near-infrared spectroscopy, fNIRS)和脑电图(EEG),并对这些方法的优缺点进行了总结。

(3)分析了目前临床麻醉监测中电生理监测方法的不足,并与麻醉机制研究中使用的方法进行了比较;介绍了脑连通性和图论分析方法,重点介绍了这一概念框架在麻醉研究中的作用和重要性;通过对过去5年里基于脑连通性和网络分析的麻醉研究进行总结,讨论了这些技术应用于临床以及优化现有麻醉监测系统的可能性。

(4)提出低密度和中密度EEG测量可以优化现有临床麻醉监测方法,小尺度功能连通性和网络分析的结合有望应用于临床麻醉监测;中密度EEG的应用有望扩大对不同麻醉药作用下的临床麻醉监测,并解决麻醉监测中个体差异的问题;此外,如果将中密度EEG应用于麻醉下的伤害性刺激研究,有望监测伤害性刺激期间麻醉药物的镇痛效果;最后,动态功能连通性分析和机器学习作为未来的研究方向,有助于开发新的麻醉监测手段以评估麻醉意识状态。

2、 基于不同神经影像学方法的麻醉研究

2021年7月,使用不同的关键词组合在Web-of-Science核心数据库中对麻醉神经影像学研究进行了文献检索(图1)。基于此,在本节中简要介绍检索到的基于不同神经影像学方法的麻醉研究;鉴于大多数麻醉研究是使用EEG进行的,在第3节中将对基于EEG的麻醉研究进行详细介绍;此外鉴于大多数脑网络研究是使用EEG和fMRI进行的,在第4节中对基于EEG和fMRI脑网络分析的麻醉研究进行详细介绍。

图1 2021年7月,基于Web-of-Science核心数据库的麻醉神经影像学研究文献检索结果。圆环图内圈的饼状图代表根据不同的影像学方法(EEG、fMRI、PET、fNIRS)进行分类的麻醉神经影像学已发表研究的数量和百分比;圆环图外圈环状图进一步区分了不同影像学方法研究中使用脑网络研究(添加关键词“连通性”)和其他麻醉神经影像学研究的数量对比。

2.1 fMRI

功能磁共振成像(fMRI)能够检测由神经元活动引起的大脑血流动力学变化,具有中等时间分辨率(第二级)和高空间分辨率(毫米级)。具有高空间分辨率的fMRI技术被广泛用于研究不同脑区空间活动规律,尤其是默认网络(default mode network, DMN),研究发现DMN相对于其他脑区表现出较高的活性和代谢[28]。fMRI在麻醉研究中也得到了广泛应用,许多研究探讨了刺激条件(如触觉、听觉和视觉刺激)下麻醉药对大脑激活的影响。Kerssens等[29]招募了6名男性被试,被试通过喉罩吸入七氟醚进行麻醉并且设定呼气末浓度;测试被试麻醉恢复后的记忆并记录听觉刺激后的fMRI的变化。结果表明七氟醚以剂量依赖性的方式抑制了听觉刺激下的血氧水平依赖(blood oxygen level-dependent, BOLD),进而抑制了麻醉期间大脑的文字处理能力并影响记忆功能。Dueck等[30]使用fMRI监测丙泊酚麻醉下被试对听觉刺激的反应,发现大脑处理听觉信息的能力呈剂量依赖性下降,而初级大脑皮层对声音的反应能力被保留,被试在全身麻醉下对听觉刺激仍有明显反应。Plourde等[31]观察到类似的现象,发现麻醉下涉及语言和词汇处理的皮层区域受到抑制,而涉及听觉处理的低级皮层反应被保留,高级皮层反应消失。关于麻醉下视觉刺激的研究呈现逐渐增多的趋势。Ramani等[32]研究了0.25 MAC七氟醚麻醉下的视觉刺激,发现七氟醚影响了初级视觉皮层和高级联想皮层。在对不同刺激条件下大脑激活的研究后发现,刺激和任务不仅会影响脑区内活动,还会影响脑区间的功能连通性(包括大脑半球间的连通性)[33]。特定的脑网络配置对意识的存在来说是必要的[34],麻醉药优先作用于高阶连通性而不是低阶连通性[35‒37]。Peltier等[38]发现七氟醚以剂量依赖性的方式影响运动皮层的时间同步,功能脑网络也呈现出从双侧到单侧的过渡。

2.2 PET

PET技术在脑成像和脑代谢方面有着广泛的应用。PET利用正电子同位素衰变产生的正电子与人体负电子湮灭效应,通过向人体注射带有正电子同位素标记的化合物,探测湮灭效应所产生的γ电子,得到人体内体素的分布信息,从而实现三维断层成像。PET测量区域脑代谢率(regional cerebral metabolic rate, rCMR)和局部脑血流量(regional cerebral blood flow, rCBF)的变化以反映脑功能的变化。1995年,Alkire等[39]首次利用PET研究麻醉作用下的人脑代谢变化,共有6名被试分别接受了两次PET扫描,一次扫描评估了有意识的基线代谢水平,另一次扫描评估了被试无反应时的代谢水平,结果发现麻醉时全脑代谢率较清醒时降低,而且代谢率的降低水平在不同脑区有所不同。在随后的研究中,Alkire等[40‒41]利用PET研究不同药物对大脑代谢的影响,同时进一步研究丘脑代谢[8],并提出了皮层丘脑连接模型。接着,不断有新的研究发表:Fiset等[35]使用PET记录丙泊酚麻醉期间整体脑血流量和局部脑血流量的变化,发现麻醉期间丘脑代谢和血流量随着麻醉深度的增加而减少,同时丘脑和中脑血流量之间的协同变化证实了这两个区域之间存在连通性。这一结果支持了一种假说,即麻醉药对特定的神经元网络产生浓度依赖性影响,而不是对大脑产生非特定的广义效应。Bonhomme等[42]研究了麻醉过程中振动刺激下丘脑和皮层的血流供应,发现在清醒状态下,振动刺激导致左丘脑和部分皮层的脑血流量增加,而在丙泊酚麻醉下,丘脑、顶叶和前额叶皮层的脑血流量以浓度依赖性的方式减少,并且丙泊酚对振动刺激的影响首先出现在体感皮层,然后出现在丘脑。

2.3 fNIRS

fNIRS技术是利用近红外光照射一个或多个组织,并收集反射光以对大脑血流动力学反应进行分析测量。与fMRI相比,fNIRS具有低成本、高便携性、较高的时间分辨率和长期测量能力等优点,近年来在脑功能研究尤其是静息状态下的脑功能研究中越来越受欢迎。与其他麻醉监测方法相比,近红外光谱(NIRS)可以监测大脑皮层循环氧合的变化,反映组织的耗氧量。Owen-Reece等[43]使用NIRS比较了患者清醒状态和麻醉状态的血流动力学,发现NIRS有区分清醒状态和麻醉状态的潜力。Lovell等[44]招募了36名患者随机接受依托咪酯、丙泊酚和硫喷妥钠麻醉诱导,发现不同麻醉药作用下的脑血流均有剂量依赖性变化。Curtin等[45]发现背外侧前额叶皮层氧合血红蛋白的变化与丙泊酚的作用相关。虽然fNIRS的相关研究结果证明了一些麻醉药能够引起大脑活动的浓度依赖性变化,但有研究发现咪达唑仑、氨茶碱和异氟醚可能影响麻醉深度,但对氧饱和度没有影响[46]。fNIRS的另一个广泛应用是估计静息态功能连通性并构建大脑的拓扑网络,但是迄今很少有研究使用fNIRS探索功能连通性变化与麻醉深度的关系。毫无疑问,以上研究证明fNIRS在评估麻醉深度中拥有很大潜力。

2.4 EEG

EEG是研究不同认知/心理状态下大脑神经影像的重要手段。在麻醉过程中,EEG各频率段的变化与麻醉药剂量高度相关。在以往的麻醉神经机制研究中,高密度EEG通常用于监测不同麻醉条件下大脑皮层的区域变化,而单通道或双通道EEG主要用于麻醉监测,而且单、双通道EEG相应的计算指标也已广泛应用于临床。然而,已有研究发现单、双通道EEG应用在麻醉监测当中存在明显局限性[47‒49]。鉴于大多数麻醉研究是使用EEG进行的,在第3节中对基于EEG的麻醉和意识研究进行详细介绍。

2.5 小结

麻醉研究中广泛使用的神经影像学技术包括fMRI、PET、fNIRS和EEG,表1总结了这些技术的特点。其中,fMRI和fNIRS能够检测与神经元行为相关的血流动力学反应;fNIRS可以同时检测与神经元行为相关的氧合血红蛋白和脱氧血红蛋白的变化;PET检测局部脑代谢率和局部脑血流的变化;而EEG是大脑电生理活动在头皮表面的总体反映。对于麻醉研究而言,PET和fMRI受到设备尺寸的限制,不适合用于手术期间的长期临床监测;而EEG和fNIRS更加便携,可以与其他临床监测设备相结合,在临床研究和应用中有更大潜力。

表1 麻醉研究中不同神经影像技术的特点

FeaturePETfMRIfNIRSEEG
Temporal resolutionLowLowModerateHigh
Spatial resolutionHighHighModerateLow
MeasuringMolecular metabolismBlood oxygen level-dependent responseBlood oxygen level-dependent response and hemoglobin (Hb)Neural electrical activity
CostExpensiveExpensiveAccessible to many researchersAccessible to many researchers
PortabilityNot portableNot portablePortablePortable
HarmfulnessRadiotracer may harm participantsHarmlessHarmlessHarmless

3、 基于EEG的麻醉和意识研究

3.1 基于低密度EEG的临床麻醉应用研究

双谱指数(bispectral index, BIS)(图2)是分析EEG信号频率和功率得到的麻醉监测指标[50]。BIS主要监测前额叶区EEG的变化,输出为一个0~100的归一化指数。研究人员对大量患者的MAC和BIS数据进行了比较,发现使用这两个指标监测麻醉时患者都容易发生术中知晓[51];值得注意的是,不同患者在相同意识状态下的BIS值会随着年龄的增长有下降的趋势[52‒55];不同药物作用下的BIS值也存在较大差异,在多种药物联合麻醉时,BIS无法准确监测麻醉状态[47‒49],不同个体的BIS值也存在显著差异[56]。

图2 双谱指数(BIS)测量示意图。BIS传感器包括两个测量通道和两个参考通道;BIS是一个归一化到0~100的数值,在麻醉过程中供麻醉师参考[50]。

熵(entropy)是用来描述信号不确定性的麻醉监测指标。在临床麻醉监测中应用最多的熵的形式是M-entropy。M-entropy的缺点与BIS相似,它只包含了单个脑区EEG的信息,并且不同药物下的M-entropy有显著差异;M-entropy在一些情况下(如在暴发抑制过程中[57‒58])会失去有效性。

EEG时频分析(time-frequency analysis)估计EEG频谱随时间的变化,同样可以用于麻醉监测。Purdon等[59]发现在不同的麻醉药作用下会出现不同的脑电信号模式,特别是当使用组合药物进行麻醉时,单一的麻醉监测指标可能不适用,但根据EEG时频分析可以区分不同药物的特征,这一结果与Akeju等[60‒61]的观点一致,其认为EEG功率谱的时频分析可能是更好的麻醉监测指标[62]。

20世纪70年代末,术中诱发电位(evoked potential, EP)[63]首次被报道。作为诱发电位的一种,听觉诱发电位(auditory evoked potential, AEP)是由听觉神经系统受到声音刺激引起的中枢神经系统的生物电反应,通过源自脑干的上行听觉通路到达初级听觉皮层。其中,中潜伏期AEP(middle-latency AEP, MLAEP)在大多数麻醉药作用下呈剂量依赖性下降,因此,MLAEP特别适合作为麻醉监测指标[64]。与BIS相比,AEP在从麻醉到清醒的过渡过程中变化迅速,能够更好地反映大脑睡眠-觉醒周期的双稳态特征[65‒66]。但与BIS类似,AEP也存在显著的个体差异[67],且其波形识别复杂,易受外界干扰[68]。

3.2 基于高密度EEG的麻醉机制研究

为了寻找麻醉监测显著且切实可行的生物标志物,考虑到麻醉过程涉及多个脑区的变化,使用高密度EEG探索麻醉神经机制已成为研究热点。此外,为了充分了解麻醉期间大脑的电生理活动变化,特别是皮层和皮层下的脑电活动,研究人员招募了帕金森病患者,使用植入电极测量丙泊酚和七氟醚单独作用下皮层和皮层下的脑电活动,发现意识活动主要反映在大脑皮层中,而皮层下结构则可以更好地预测患者对伤害性刺激的反应[21],颅内脑电则显示了患者从深度麻醉恢复的最初迹象[69]。

Alkire等[18]使用经颅磁刺激(transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS)来刺激前运动皮层,观察大脑区域间信息传递的变化,发现麻醉无意识与大脑皮层整合信息的能力有关;当意识消失时,大脑皮层区域之间的传递熵减小,这种现象可能是麻醉诱导无意识的共同机制,与皮层碎片化理论相一致。此外,研究人员发现麻醉无意识伴随着额叶到顶叶皮层功能连通性的降低[70‒72]。以上研究表明,麻醉诱导的无意识可能是由于大脑跨皮层区域信息整合能力下降造成的。

Purdon等[73]使用间隔为4 s的鼠标点击声音作为刺激,记录了高密度EEG以观察大脑电活动的变化,发现当丙泊酚浓度增加时,EEG低频振荡(频率小于1 Hz)功率增加,同时枕叶α振荡(8~12 Hz)的空间相干性降低,前额叶α振荡(8~12 Hz)的空间相干性增加;0.1~1.0 Hz频率段的功率在整个头皮和前额叶增加,8~12 Hz频率段的功率在前额叶增加,25~35 Hz频率段的功率主要在顶叶增加。Huang等[74]将电极植入慢性疼痛患者的双侧前扣带皮层(anterior cingulate cortex, ACC)、下丘脑、导水管周灰质(periaqueductal gray, PAG)和感觉丘脑,发现当丙泊酚浓度增加时,皮层下α振荡增加,γ振荡减少;此外,皮层下结构也表现出类似于皮层结构的振荡变化,进一步表明α振荡的功能连通性可能是意识的标志。高密度EEG已被广泛应用于评估麻醉下的脑网络变化,在麻醉作用下通常可以观察到部分连通性而不是整体连通性的降低;其中丙泊酚以非特异性的方式优先影响丘脑核内的功能连通性,一些麻醉药还能降低高阶丘脑皮层的连通性[75]。麻醉作用下大脑活动变化的机制仍有待研究,而高密度EEG是阐明麻醉和意识机制的有力工具。

4、 基于脑网络的麻醉研究

4.1 脑网络和图论分析

人脑的结构和功能体系高度复杂,从系统的角度来探索大脑的功能和结构机制非常具有研究价值。各种先进的脑成像技术和数据处理方法已经为理解大脑结构提供了一些初步见解,而基于脑影像技术的脑网络分析方法是评估全脑功能变化的一个非常有潜力的工具。人脑可以看作是一个由大规模网络组成的连接体,许多研究表明,大脑网络在神经通信、信息处理和整合中发挥着重要作用。网络神经科学的兴起为大脑结构和功能的多层次分析提供了新方法,其从综合角度探索大脑的结构、功能和效率,寻求不同方法来对神经生物学系统的元素及其相互作用进行描绘、记录、分析和建模[76],并利用不同的成像技术来获取大脑中的重要信息。

4.1.1. 连通性分析

连通性是构建脑网络的基础,其评估不同大脑节点之间的关系,构建大脑区域之间的相互关系作为脑网络的边。EEG脑网络构建方法如图3 [77]所示。脑连通性可分为三种类型:①结构连通性,即大脑区域之间的物理连接(通常对应于成对大脑区域之间的白质纤维束);②功能连通性,即大脑区域活动之间的时间依赖性(通常根据fMRI和EEG数据进行估计);③有效连通性,即一个大脑区域对另一个大脑区域的直接或间接的因果作用(在EEG信号分析中被广泛应用)[78‒79]。通过图论和连通性分析相结合,可以观察大脑丰富拓扑结构的静态和动态变化,这些变化对麻醉研究的发展是至关重要的。连通性方法不仅可以应用于原始EEG信号,还可以应用于信号中的不同频率段,如δ (1~4 Hz)、θ (4~7 Hz)、α (8~12 Hz)、β (13~30 Hz)和γ (30~100 Hz)。在表2 [80‒98]中,简要介绍了几种常用的连通性估计方法,关于不同连通性估计方法及其解释的更详细描述可以参照相关综述[99‒101]。

图3 EEG脑网络构建示意图。通过估计传感器空间或源定位后源空间的时间序列之间的关系来构建能够描述脑连通性的邻接矩阵(通过连通性估计方法计算)。源定位是根据头皮测量到的电信号来估计脑内神经活动源的位置、方向和强度的方法[77]。

表2 不同连通性估计方法的定义及度量

TypePropertiesFormulasMeasurement and meaningReferences
Undirected connectivityCoherence (COH)COHXY(ω)=SXY(ω)SXX(ω)SYY(ω)COHXY(ω) measures the correlation between signal X and Y at frequency ω; SXY(ω) is the cross-spectral density; and SXX(ω) and SYY(ω) are the auto spectral densities of signal x and y, respectively.[80]
Phase lag index (PLI)PLI=1Nt=1Nsign(Δϕt)The PLI is the measurement used for measuring phase synchrony; sign () denotes the sign function; Δϕt is the phase difference at time t; and N is the number of samples.[81]
Weighted PLI (wPLI)wPLI=|E{|I(Z)|sign[I(Z)]}|E{|I(Z)|}The wPLI is the degree of phase synchronization; Z is the cross-spectrum; I() denotes the imaginary component; and E{} is the expected value operator. wPLI is a derivative of PLI.[82]
Phase locking value (PLV)PLV=1Nt=1NejΔϕtThe PLV estimates the phasic interrelation between two signals; e is the Euler constant; and j is the imaginary unit. The imaginary part of PLV (iPLV) and the corrected imaginary part of PLV (ciPLV) [83] are derivatives of PLV.[84]
Phase lag entropy (PLE)PLE=-1lg(2m)jpjlgpjPLE incorporates the temporal dynamics of the instantaneous phase time series into the phase synchronization analysis; m represents pattern size (word length); and pj is the probability of the jth pattern.[85]
Pairwise phase consistency (PPC)PPC = 2N(N-1)j=1N-1k=(j+1)Nfθj,θkPPC is a measure that quantifies the distribution of phase differences across observations, where fθj,θk=(cos(θj)cos(θk)+sin(θj) sin(θk)). θjandθkare the relative phases from two observations.[86]
Phase-slope index (PSI)PSI=IfFCij*(f)Cij(f+δf)The PSI is a generic quantity to infer dominant undirected interactions, whereCij(f)=Sij(f)/Sii(f)Sjj(f)is the complex coherency; S is the cross-spectral matrix; δfis the frequency resolution; and F is the set of frequencies over which the slope is summed. * denotes the transpose and complex conjugate operation.[87]
Orthogonalized amplitude envelope correlation (orthAEC)orthAEC(t,f)=Iy(t,f)x´(t,f)|x(t,f)|The variable orthAEC measures synchronization between signal envelopes. The complex signals x and y are functions of time t and frequency f; x′ is the complex conjugate of x.[88]
Mutual information (MI)MI(X;Y)=x,yp(x,y)lnp(x,y)p(x)p(y)MI is the measurement of information shared by both the X and Y signals; p(x,y)is the joint distribution of X and Y; and p(x) and p(y) are the marginal distributions of X and Y, respectively.[89]
Partial MI (PMI)PMI(X,YZ)=SDE(X, Z) + SDE(Z, Y)-SDE(Z)-SDE(X, Z, Y)PMI measures the amount of information shared by X and Y while discounting the possibility that Z drives both X and Y; and SDE denotes the Shannon differential entropy.[90]
Directed connectivityPhase TE (PTE)PTEXY=SE[θy(t),θy(t´)]+SE[θy(t´),θx(t´)]-          SE[θy(t´)]-SE[θy(t),θy(t´),θx(t´)]PTE is a measure of directed connectivity between phase time series;θx(t) and θy(t)are the past phases of X and Y at time t, respectively; and SE is Shannon entropy.[91]
Partial directed coherence (PDC)PDCij(f)=Aij(f)aj*(f)aj(f)PDC describes the relationships between the present time series of xi(n) and the past of xj(n); aj(f)and Aij(f) come from the prediction error covariance matrix associated with multichannel autoregressive (AR) models. The generalized PDC [92] and renormalized PDC [93] are derivatives of PDC.[94]
Directed transfer function (DTF)DTFij(f)=Hij(f)hj*(f)hj(f)The DTF is defined similarly to PDC. The DTF uses the elements of the transfer function matrix Hij(f), whereas PDC uses those of Aij(f). hj(f)is the column of the inverse of the transfer function matrix. The direct dDTF [95] is a derivative of the DTF.[96]
Directed phase‒amplitude coupling (DPAC)DPAC=1Nt=1Na(t)ejϕtt=1Na(t)2DPAC is the measurement used to measure coupling of phase and amplitude, where a is the amplitude and ϕt is the phase.[97]
Granger causality (GC)GCyx=lnVxx¯Vxx¯,y¯GCyx is the GC from y to x (predicting x from y), where V is the variance of the residuals, which is estimated using AR models.[98]

4.1.2. 图论分析

1736年,瑞士数学家Leonhard Euler提出了著名的“哥尼斯堡七桥”问题,这个问题将图论作为一个新的分支引入了数学,并从此蓬勃发展起来。图论是定量评估网络拓扑结构的一种数学分析框架。1998年发表在Nature上的一篇论文发现秀丽隐杆线虫的神经网络表现出小世界网络的特征[102],这篇影响深远的论文使得网络科学研究复兴,并用于研究不同领域中各种复杂系统的拓扑结构,包括神经科学、社会科学、通信、物理学、生物学以及计算机科学。实际上,虽然不同系统的微观元素或它们的相互作用机制存在巨大差异,但是其表现出的宏观行为是非常相似的。

近年来,图论已经成为神经科学领域研究复杂网络的非常重要的分析方法,被认为是描述脑网络特征的重要工具。趋同证据表明,大脑是一个小世界网络,其特征是拥有比随机网络更大的聚类系数和更小的特征路径长度。人类脑网络的小世界特征表明,脑网络以特定模式进行组织,以保持局部分化和全局整合之间的平衡,也就是说,较低层次的信息可以在局部进行模块化处理,而较高层次的信息则需要在大脑不同功能区之间进行整合。

表3简要介绍了几种广泛使用的图论分析指标,图4为几种有代表性的指标的示意图。关于不同图论分析指标及其数学公式的更详细的描述可以参照相关综述[103‒105]。对图论算法实践感兴趣的读者可以使用相关的开源图论分析工具箱[106‒113]。应该注意的是,这些图论指标的估计和计算应该考虑网络特性(加权网络/二进制网络,无向网络/定向网络),对于不同特性的网络,应采用不同的数学公式进行计算和分析。

表3 不同图论分析指标的定义及度量

Property typePropertiesMeasurement and meaning
Global propertiesClustering coefficient (C)The C is the ratio of the actual number of edges among all neighbor nodes directly connected to a node. A higher C indicates a more segregated network topology.
Characteristic path length (L)L represents the average value of the shortest path among all node pairs. A lower L indicates high efficiency of parallel information transfer of a network.
Small-worldness (σ)σ is an integrated indicator, greater values of which represent a shorter feature path length and a larger C. A value greater than 1 typically indicates a small-world network.
Global efficiency (Eglob)Eglob measures network efficiency for parallel information transmission and is inversely proportional to L.
Local efficiency (Eloc)Eloc means the efficiency of local connections between arbitrary nodes; this property is defined as the average of the Eglob of adjacent subgraphs of node i.
Modularity (Q)Q refers to the optimal division of a brain network into smaller communities, where the connections within the modules are dense and the connections between modules are sparse.
AssortativityAssortativity measures the correlation between the degree of a node and the mean degree of its nearest neighbors.
Hierarchy (β)β quantifies the power-law relationship between the C and degree N of the nodes.
Rich clubsRich clubs are elite “cliques” of high-degree network hubs that are connected topologically with high efficiency.
TransitivityTransitivity is the fraction of all possible triangles present in a network.
SynchronizationSynchronization measures the propensity of all nodes to fluctuate in the same wave pattern.
Nodal propertiesNode degree (Ndegree)Ndegree is the number of connections joining a node to the rest of the network.
Node strength (Nstr)Nstr is the sum of edge weights that link a node to the other nodes in a weighted network.
Betweenness centrality (BC)BC is defined as the number of shortest paths between other node pairs passing through the node.
Nodal efficiency (Enodal)Enodal is defined as the reciprocal of the harmonic mean of the shortest path length between a node and all other nodes.
Closeness centrality (CC)CC quantifies how quickly a given node in a connected graph can access all other nodes; the more central a node is, the closer it is to all other nodes.
Eigenvector centrality (EC)EC of node i is equivalent to the i-th element in the eigenvector corresponding to the largest eigenvalue of the adjacency matrix.
Participation coefficientThe participation coefficient of a node quantifies the distribution of its connections among separate modules.
PageRank centralityPageRank centrality is a variant of EC. PageRank is defined as the stationary distribution achieved by instantiating a Markov chain on a graph. The PageRank centrality of a node is proportional to the number of steps spent at the node as a result of such a process.
k-coreness centralityThe k-core is the largest subgraph comprising nodes whose degree is at least k. The k-coreness of a node is k if the node belongs to the k-core but not to the (k+1)-core.
Network costNetwork cost is the ratio of the existing number of edges to the total number of possible edges in the network.

图4 图论分析中几种有代表性的拓扑结构指标示意图。不同指标的详细描述见表3。

4.1.3. 动态功能连通性分析

大脑能够在不同时间尺度对内外刺激进行动态整合、协调和响应,而上文中介绍的静态网络特征并不能表征脑网络的动态特性。考虑到大脑活动的动态性和任务依赖性[114],根据fMRI或EEG数据计算出的功能连通性毫无疑问会随着时间推移而变化,那么功能连通性在长时间的数据记录当中是平稳的这种假设便过于简单[115],从而导致无法捕捉静息状态数据中的全部特征。事实上,越来越多的证据表明动态功能连通性(dynamic functional connectivity, dFC)分析是揭示不同认知状态下大脑功能整合特性的更有效的方法[116]。最近,一些研究小组对动态功能连通性分析的方法学和研究前景作了全面综述[117‒119]。在此,简要介绍动态功能连通性分析的基本概念,有兴趣使用动态功能连通性分析的读者可以参照相关综述。

静态功能连通性分析是在固定的时间窗口内构建网络,在大多数静息态fMRI网络研究中,功能连通性通常是在整个数分钟的扫描周期内进行估计的[120],而动态功能连通性分析则是按照时间动态的方式构建脑网络。动态功能连通性分析最广泛使用的策略是将基于空间位置(大脑体素或区域)的时间进程分割成一组时间窗口,并估计时间窗内部的功能连通性,这种方法被称为滑动窗口法,该过程将整个扫描时间序列划分为多个时间窗口段,如果有足够多的数据点进行计算,任何功能连通性指标原则上都可以用于滑动窗口分析;对动态功能连通性估计结果进行硬聚类(或模糊聚类、K-means聚类、主成分分析等)的结果可用于观察组水平的变化并进行统计分析;最后,对聚类得到的动态功能连通性状态的时间特性和拓扑结构(模块化、网络效率等)进行评估[117,119,121]。图5为动态功能连通性分析框架的示意图。

图5 动态功能连通性分析框架示意图。步骤1:采用滑动窗口法构建时变功能脑网络;步骤2:使用K-means聚类识别动态功能连通性状态,进行统计分析;步骤3:根据需要在全局、中观和局部水平进行动态功能连通性分析。

4.2 基于脑网络的麻醉实验研究

随着脑网络分析技术在神经科学领域的发展,越来越多的研究开始使用图论工具分析麻醉作用下意识状态的变化。基于脑网络分析的研究方案与麻醉机制研究的需求一致,因为麻醉诱导的无意识很可能是由于外侧额叶持续抑制或皮层功能断开造成的[122]。因此,本文将重点放在基于脑网络的麻醉实验研究上。鉴于这些实验研究大多是使用EEG和fMRI进行的,在此分别对其进行介绍。

4.2.1. 基于EEG脑网络的麻醉研究

根据文献检索结果,在152篇基于EEG脑网络的研究中(图1),其中98篇是在过去5年内发表的,检索结果中包括其他神经影像学方法、EEG功率谱分析、脑损伤等与EEG脑网络和麻醉没有直接关联的文献。通过手动排除与连通性和网络分析、意识、麻醉等不直接相关的文献,最终纳入33篇文献,其中多数文献与麻醉神经机制研究相关,少数与临床应用研究相关。在此重点关注基于EEG脑网络的麻醉与意识神经机制研究,进一步筛选出了27篇具有代表性的文献[85,123‒148](表4)。根据不同的功能连通性估计方法,将这些研究分为三类进行介绍:基于频谱的功能连通性研究、基于熵/复杂性的功能连通性研究和动态功能连通性研究。

表4 近5年来基于EEG脑网络的麻醉研究总结

TimeDrugsRegionsIndexChannelsFindingsReference
2016PropofolChannels on the neck, cheeks, and forehead were excludedDPAC, wPLI91Participants with weaker alpha-band networks were more likely to become unresponsive under the same sedation protocol.[123]
2016SevofluranewPLI, Eglob, Ndegree64This study demonstrates for the first time that the network conditions for explosive synchronization, formerly shown in generic networks only, are present in empirically derived functional brain networks.[124]
2017PropofolFrontal and parietalwPLI, Eloc27

Delta power increased from responsiveness to unresponsiveness, and the delta waves shifted from frontal to parietal regions.

The local connectivity in the delta frequency range increased in the parietal lobe.

[125]
2017Propofol10‒20 systemPLI, PLE12PLE outperforms the PLI in classifying states of consciousness.[85]
2017Sevoflurane, isoflurane, midazolam10‒20 systemPLI, PTE17

Participants recovering from anesthesia had a more integrated network in the delta band than did participants without anesthesia.

Patients with hypoactive delirium showed reduced network integration in the alpha band.

[126]
2017Nitrous oxideParietal and frontalGC8

Nitrous oxide led to a decrease in connectivity from parietal to frontal regions but no change in the opposite direction.

The changes in parieto-frontal connectivity were prominent in the theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands.

[127]
2017PropofolFrontoparietalMI, TE7

TE was more effective than MI in representing the amount of information shared between channels.

The maximum (TEmax), minimum (TEmin), and mean (TEmean) of TE were sensitive to drug concentration.

[128]
2017PropofolDMNPLI, wPLI, Q, Eglob, Eloc128

During recovery, network efficiency and posterior alpha patterns increased.

The network clustering coefficient was increased during unconsciousness.

The PLI did not distinguish between states of consciousness or stages of recovery.

[129]
2017KetaminewPLI128Significant changes in the theta band, including power and functional connection enhancements, appeared during ketamine anesthesia.[130]
2018Ketamine, propofol, isofluranewPLI, Q128The average integrated information (Φ) and the network modularity (Q) of the alpha band reflected states of consciousness. Only Φ showed significant and consistent changes in all frequency bands.[131]
2018Isoflurane, ketaminePLE, PLI, Ndegree32, 64, 128Partial phase locking at criticality shapes the FC and asymmetric anterior-posterior PLE topography of the network, with low (high) PLE for high-degree (low-degree) nodes.[132]
2018Propofol

Occipital, parietal, and

frontal

DCM6Cortical time-frequency spectral responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) are perturbed by propofol sedation. In addition, changes in both feedforward and feedback connectivity throughout the cortical hierarchy might be involved in the effect of anesthesia on consciousness.[133]
2019PropofolSynamps 2/RT systemwPLI60Five common brain functional network patterns were found across all conscious levels. Functional network patterns were found to be supported by anatomical connections during unconsciousness.[134]
2019Propofol, isofluraneElectrodes on the lowest parts of the face and head were removedwPLI21Cortical connectivity was dynamic during the anesthesia maintenance period and had a higher probability of remaining in the same state than switching to a different state.[135]
2019Propofol10‒20 systemPDC12This study showed that the use of directed coherence to assess EEG directional connectivity outperformed the BIS and the auditory middle latency response.[136]
2019Sevoflurane10‒20 systemCross-spectral coherence33It was verified that slow-wave connectivity and brain network integration were decreased during general anesthesia with sevoflurane in infants.[137]
2019Propofol10‒20 systemMI4Standardized permutation MI has a faster response to drug concentration, less variability in the awake state and stronger robustness to noise than the BIS.[138]
2019Midazolam, propofol10‒20 systemPLI32Although the degree of sedation differed between midazolam and propofol, the changes in power were similar. FC and network topology reflected the differences in sedation between midazolam and propofol.[139]
2019PropofolPLE4The PLE was used for clinical anesthesia monitoring and compared with the BIS value. It was noted that PLE could be used as an indicator of hypnotic depth for patients sedated with propofol.[140]
2020Propofol10‒20 systemwPLI14This study compared the brain FC of the same subjects during sleep and anesthesia and found similar connectivity changes.[141]
2020Propofol

Frontal, parietal, and

temporal

MI, C, Enodal, L64The genuine permutation cross MI reflected propofol-induced coupling changes measured at a cortical scale. LOC was associated with the distribution of the pattern of information integration.[142]
2020Propofol10‒20 systemdwPLI16Dynamic connectivity under anesthesia, especially in the alpha and theta bands, may be an informative indicator for assessing neurophysiological changes with age.[143]
2020PropofolGC31Propofol-induced unresponsiveness is marked by a global decrease in information flow, chiefly in the posterior and medial directions from the lateral frontal and prefrontal brain regions.[144]
2021Etomidate (Wada test)10‒20 systemdwPLI24The unilateral injection of an anesthetic into one internal carotid artery/hemisphere caused bilateral changes in EEG.[145]
2021Propofol10‒20 systemPDC19Propofol-induced anesthesia caused modifications in the EEG signal, leading to a rebalancing between long- and short-range cortical connections, and had a direct effect on the cardiac system.[146]
2021PropofoldPLI, PAC, NSTE64Disruption of frontoparietal connectivity is a signature of propofol-induced anesthesia.[147]
2021PropofolAEC, wPLI128The class of connectivity measure chosen to construct functional brain networks may greatly influence what connectivity alterations are noted across states of consciousness and when these alterations are most apparent.[148]

基于频谱的功能连通性研究:EEG具有提供频谱信息的优势,大部分的功能连通性指标都是基于频谱估计的。Chennu等[123]使用wPLI指标和网络分析发现,在相同的麻醉镇静方案下,α段网络较弱的被试在麻醉作用下更容易失去反应;Kim等[124]使用wPLI指标讨论了人脑网络暴发性同步的功能性和拓扑性条件;Lee等[125]发现麻醉期间顶叶δ频率段EEG的wPLI增加。如上所述,wPLI指标已被广泛应用于麻醉脑网络研究[130‒131,148]。此外,Blain-Moraes等[129]使用wPLI的基础版本——PLI进行研究,发现PLI不能区分不同意识状态;Numan等[139]发现PLI能够反映咪达唑仑和丙泊酚镇静作用的差异。许多研究也对相干性及其衍生版指标进行了分析[136‒137,146]。另一方面,基于动态因果模型的方法,包括格兰杰因果关系(Granger causality, GC)[127,133,144]等,开始应用于麻醉研究中。作为在固定频率段内功能连通性的扩展,跨频耦合(cross-frequency coupling, CFC)能够反映不同频率段之间复杂的相互作用[148‒151];在不同任务中,一个频率段的EEG可以调制其他频率段的EEG [152],这种调制包括幅-幅耦合(amplitude-amplitude coupling, AAC)[148]、相-幅耦合(phase-amplitude coupling, PAC)[149‒151]和相-相耦合(phase-phase coupling, PPC)[149‒150];跨频耦合可以发生在同一皮层区域,也可以发生在不同的皮层区域之间[153]。

基于熵/复杂性的功能连通性研究:EEG信号的熵和复杂性指标能够用于估计大脑皮层的信息传递。Lee等[85]提出了一个新指标——相位滞后熵(phase lag entropy, PLE),其使用熵的概念来估计相位关系的时间动态特性;与关注连通性强度的传统相位同步方法不同,该方法反映了给定的两个信号相位之间的交互是否包含不同的或固定的连通性模式,能更好地反映神经通信中相位关系的时变动力学;Lee的研究结果表明,与传统的时间平均连通性估计方法PLI相比,PLE在意识状态分类方面具有更好的性能,该指标的有效性也被进一步验证[132,140]。提出了一种量化时变系统之间统计一致性的信息论指标——传递熵(transfer entropy, TE),其能够量化信号之间的传递信息量,已经被广泛应用于EEG研究。Cha等[128]分析了39例被试的临床实验数据,发现TE与丙泊酚浓度高度相关。Zhao等[147]使用归一化符号传递熵(normalized symbolic transfer entropy, NSTE,TE的衍生版)发现麻醉过程中被试的额顶叶连通性显著下降,这表明额顶叶连通性的中断是丙泊酚诱导麻醉的特征。Lobier等[94]提出了相位传递熵(phase transfer entropy, PTE),这是一种使用熵的概念来估计神经元振荡之间定向连通性的新方法,其量化了从神经生理信号中提取的相位时间序列之间的传递熵,这一指标也开始被用于麻醉研究[126]。此外,基于互信息的指标也开始用于麻醉研究[138,142]。

动态功能连通性研究:近年来,研究者开始尝试对EEG数据进行动态功能连通性分析,进而探讨麻醉下的动态脑网络特征。Zhang等[134]使用动态功能连通性分析发现了麻醉过程中5种常见的功能脑网络模式。Li等[135]和Vlisides等[155]分别通过K-means聚类和马尔可夫链分析表征动态功能连通性模式,发现单一功能连通性指标无法在临床麻醉和实验麻醉下与麻醉状态达到可靠的相关性。基于动态功能连通性分析的麻醉和意识机制研究还不成熟,与fMRI相比,拥有更高时间分辨率的基于EEG的动态功能连通性分析可能更适合于临床麻醉应用。

4.2.2. 基于fMRI脑网络的麻醉研究

根据文献检索结果,在112篇基于fMRI脑网络的研究中(图1),有59篇是在过去5年内发表的。在此重点关注基于fMRI脑网络的麻醉与意识研究,筛选出了16篇代表性文献[156‒171],在下文中进行详细介绍。

由于fMRI具有较高的空间分辨率,近年来越来越多研究使用fMRI探索麻醉作用下的功能连通性变化。大脑活动中丰富的功能连通性被认为是清醒的标志;在低意识状态下,大脑的功能连通性更接近于其本身的解剖结构[156,172];而从清醒到麻醉的过渡过程中,脑网络的整体连通性(特别是顶叶和额叶)显著降低[173]。fMRI不仅可以反映皮层和皮层下结构之间的功能关系,也可以揭示不同皮层区域之间的相互作用。最近的研究表明,氯胺酮等麻醉药可以直接干扰大脑信息传递[157],丙泊酚会降低额叶皮层的功能连通性[158],而七氟醚主要影响皮层与丘脑之间的功能连通性[159]。不同麻醉药作用于不同的靶点,影响不同脑区间的功能连通性[14]。这些功能连通性差异与麻醉后大脑的电活动有关,Mukamel等[151]将其描述为时间和空间上的碎片化,表现为大脑皮层长距离连通性的中断和短距离连通性的保留。Wu等[160]发现,局部相干性在清醒时的大部分脑区相对较高,但在药物(如美托咪定、美托洛尔)的作用下会降低,而且异氟醚会导致扣带皮层的局部相干性降低。也有最新研究表明,在高度整合的时间状态下,大脑皮层网络受到麻醉作用的影响,表现出功能多样性和信息量的降低,而在高度分化的状态下,皮层丘脑的功能连通性断开;在空间上,默认模式网络的后部区域在麻醉期间表现出功能多样性和与其他脑区间整合的减少[161]。这些研究证明了不同靶点和不同药物对功能连通性的特异性影响。不同麻醉方案可以产生不同的功能连通性模式或典型的静息态fMRI模式[162],这也表明基于fMRI的连通性分析能够提供不同麻醉药物作用的特征信息。此外,针对不同的麻醉阶段,Huang等[163]使用fMRI发现麻醉作用下的诱导和恢复阶段可能遵循不对称的神经动力学。

还有一些研究从全脑网络特征的角度分析麻醉期间的fMRI数据。Standage等[164]发现,增加异氟醚剂量会导致全脑模块数量、分化程度以及模块之间大脑区域异步活动的增加。Luppi等[165]发现,大脑高度动态整合的脑网络结构容易受到七氟醚诱导的全身麻醉的影响,表现出网络复杂性和小世界特性的减弱;此外,高剂量的七氟醚[3%(体积分数)以及暴发抑制情况下]会损害大脑功能整合和分离的时间平衡。相比之下,通过对非人灵长类动物在异氟醚诱导麻醉下的静息态功能连通性进行分析,Areshenkoff等[166]发现麻醉下明显的脑网络碎片化是全脑功能连通性普遍降低的结果,并不能反映真实网络结构的变化。Vatansever等[167]测量了一组丙泊酚诱导麻醉下健康被试的静息态fMRI,发现了一种稳定的模块化网络结构,其中大脑核心节点重组形成了一个空间分布更加广泛的富人俱乐部集体。Wang等[168]的研究结果表明,在丙泊酚麻醉和自然睡眠的无意识状态下,富人俱乐部节点在高阶认知、感觉和运动网络之间的切换表明了麻醉期间功能脑网络中的富人俱乐部属性的重组。

基于EEG的动态功能连通性分析在麻醉研究中尚处于起步阶段,而基于fMRI的动态功能连通性分析在麻醉研究中的应用已经较为广泛。Tsurugizawa等[169]分别对清醒和麻醉后的小鼠进行静息态fMRI扫描,动态功能连通性分析结果表明,与清醒状态相比,轻度麻醉下皮层、下丘脑和视听皮层之间频繁而广泛的连通性逐渐转变为皮层内部频繁的局部连通性。Yin等[170]发现,在麻醉的猴子大脑中,动态脑网络模式的节点熵与静态功能连通性强度之间存在负相关关系,而在清醒的人类大脑中则没有这一现象。Ma等[156]使用滑动窗口法和K-means聚类发现了几种亚稳态脑网络模式,其在清醒到麻醉状态的过渡过程中动态转换。Golkowski等[171]对接受丙泊酚麻醉的16名被试和接受七氟醚麻醉的14名被试的静息态fMRI数据进行了空间独立成分分析和K-means聚类,发现高阶脑区对于特定脑网络模式的生成起着至关重要的作用。

5、 讨论

近年来,针对麻醉和意识的功能连通性和网络研究多使用高密度EEG和fMRI进行。虽然PET有独特的核素追踪能力,但由于PET的低时间分辨率、高成本和辐射风险,其很少用于麻醉和意识的网络研究。大多数麻醉与意识研究集中在麻醉作用下的整体脑网络结构和特定皮层区域之间的相互作用,这些发现为临床麻醉监测提供了新的思路。基于图论分析的方法学框架和麻醉脑网络研究的最新发现,本文总结了以下几个潜在的研究思路,包括:① EEG通道对麻醉监测的影响;②针对不同麻醉药的麻醉监测;③个体化麻醉监测;④伤害性刺激下麻醉药的镇痛效果监测;⑤结合fNIRS进行多模态监测。最后,本文对方法学和未来的研究方向进行了讨论。

5.1 EEG通道对麻醉监测的影响

脑网络分析在临床麻醉应用的一个关键问题是如何得到最优的EEG通道方案。EEG通道选择包括通道的最优数量和最优位置的选择。由于临床环境的限制,很难在尽可能多的可用数据和麻醉监测系统的便利性之间保持平衡。有趣的是,并不是所有的通道都需要监测才能达到可靠的麻醉监测效果,此外,考虑到便利性和实用性,过多的通道可能会影响患者在临床环境中的佩戴,而且同一大脑区域内多个通道之间的信息是冗余的。大多数基于EEG脑网络的麻醉研究(表4)虽然使用了高密度EEG(64个、128个通道)进行数据采集,但与麻醉相关的现象是在少数特定区域上观察到的。因此,应该进一步研究能够捕捉与麻醉相关的大脑活动的最优电极位置。另一方面,不同麻醉脑网络研究中连通性估计方法和网络尺度的不同使得难以比较不同研究的结果。通过对近期研究的总结[174‒176],本文归纳了不同密度EEG的特点(表5)。特别需要注意的是,通道数量的选择应根据不同麻醉方案和受试人群进行调整,不应将表5作为参考。此外,额叶和顶叶与麻醉无意识相关的特征最多[42,70‒72,173],这些发现与文献[177]一致,其认为思维被默认网络自动约束,被额顶网络刻意约束,并通过突显网络进行调节。随着机器学习方法的发展,最近有研究尝试用机器学习模型选择特征突出的通道[178‒179],为通道数量和位置的优化提供了基于数据驱动的方法。

表5 麻醉研究中不同密度EEG的特点

FeatureLowMediumHigh
Number of electrodes<2525‒64>64
Spatial resolutionPoorModerateRelatively good
CostLowAcceptableExpensive
ConvenienceHighLowLow

5.2 针对不同麻醉药的麻醉监测

现有临床麻醉监测方法的主要缺点之一是无法监测不同麻醉药的作用,仅适用于监测特定麻醉药的作用。在各种麻醉监测指标[包括BIS、AEP、熵、功率谱分析(power spectrum analysis, PSA)、脑状态指数(cerebral state index, CSI)]中,只有BIS经过了全面、大样本量、多中心的临床验证[56]。然而,即使是广泛应用于临床的BIS,也只能监测丙泊酚、七氟醚等少数麻醉药的作用。由于不同麻醉药作用的差异性,不同麻醉药下测量得到相同的BIS值并不能代表麻醉深度相同。而且在某些麻醉药(如氧化亚氮和氯胺酮)作用下,BIS值甚至可能会在无意识状态下增加。同时,BIS受阿片类药物以及肌肉松弛剂等的影响,其监测药物联合麻醉的有效性很低。另一方面,静脉注射芬太尼(2 µg·kg‒1)可以显著减少实现麻醉无意识所需麻醉药的剂量,说明芬太尼可协同增强麻醉药对意识的抑制作用[180],这一发现也说明通过评估麻醉药剂量来监测麻醉是不准确的。另外,阿片类药物的使用给目前临床麻醉监测带来了很大不确定性。现代临床麻醉方案通常使用多种麻醉药组合进行麻醉,目前尚无临床监测指标能够全面、准确地反映不同麻醉药下的大脑状态。我们相信,麻醉精准监测新方法的发展将对揭示麻醉无意识潜在的神经机制大有裨益。例如,Kim等[131,181]提出了一种估计麻醉作用下大脑信息整合程度的方法,以区分麻醉下的不同意识状态;Kim等比较了不同麻醉药(氯胺酮、丙泊酚和异氟醚)在麻醉过程中对大脑信息整合能力的影响,发现这种方法可以准确识别意识状态,这项研究为脑网络分析在不同麻醉药作用下监测意识状态的优越性提供了临床依据。另外,大多数传统麻醉监测方法都是对前额或单个大脑区域的EEG进行分析,无法准确监测氯胺酮麻醉。研究表明,氯胺酮等麻醉药可以直接干扰不同皮层区域之间的信息传递[85]。在多种药物作用下,可能会出现不同脑区EEG的变化,并伴随着信息传递和大脑协同能力的改变,因此,EEG的网络分析有望为复杂麻醉条件下的麻醉监测提供更可靠的指标。

5.3 个体化麻醉监测

现有临床麻醉监测方法的另一个主要缺点是对麻醉监测中的个体差异缺乏敏感性。个体差异是指相同年龄、体重、性别和其他基本条件的人群对药物敏感性(或反应)的差异。虽然对于相同年龄和身体条件的患者,麻醉条件和手术时间基本相同,但患者的麻醉深度或术后恢复时间存在明显差异[123]。特别是在使用相同剂量的麻醉药时,有的患者在手术过程中苏醒,有的患者在术后能够立即苏醒,有的患者在术后数小时后才能苏醒。为了帮助医生了解麻醉状态,大多数指标(包括BIS、M-entropy和AEP)将麻醉深度量化为0~100的直观值。然而研究表明,使用BIS进行麻醉深度监测时,患者术中知晓的概率会增加[182],这一发现重申了依靠BIS值判断意识状态时考虑个体差异的必要性,在忽略个体差异的情况下,部分患者会因麻醉深度不够而发生术中知晓。现有临床麻醉监测手段在考虑临床便利性的同时,忽略了整个大脑的丰富信息,各种简单指标很难描述复杂的麻醉过程。最近,Chennu等[123]发现对大脑和意识的监测受个体对麻醉敏感性的影响,为了解决这一问题,他们将丙泊酚麻醉前、麻醉中、麻醉后的基于高密度EEG频谱的脑网络与血液中的药物浓度相结合进行分析,Chennu等发现,尽管血液中的药物浓度水平相近,但基线α频率段网络较弱的被试对药物更加敏感;这项研究的结果表明,脑网络在预测个体对丙泊酚的敏感性上具有一定的潜力。如果该技术应用于临床,可能会解决多年来困扰麻醉监测的个体差异问题。

5.4 伤害性刺激下麻醉药的镇痛效果监测

与专门的意识研究不同,临床中的全身麻醉包括三个因素:镇静、镇痛和肌肉放松。当这三个因素在全身麻醉过程中都符合要求时,说明达到了最佳麻醉效果。目前临床麻醉监测在评估镇静和肌肉放松程度方面相对成熟,但在评估镇痛效果方面还需要进一步改进。麻醉下的镇痛监测不同于传统的疼痛研究,疼痛是基于意识的,人的疼痛涉及主观感受。当患者接受全身麻醉失去意识时,疼痛主要表现为对伤害性刺激的应激反应和其他一系列同时发生的生理反应。这种应激反应通常由血流动力学指标监测,如血压和心率,以及眼瞳运动、呼吸、出汗等指标,最简单直接的方法是观察伤害性刺激后的身体反应。然而,这些指标个体差异性较大,特异性不强。由于EEG具有良好的时间特异性,可以提取具有不同频谱特征的子信号,因此EEG在评估麻醉镇痛效果方面具有很大的潜力。研究表明,伤害性刺激能够改变皮层下活动,而BIS只能反映大脑皮层的电活动,因此,BIS不能监测镇痛效果和应激水平[183]。然而还有一些研究表明,伤害性刺激对大脑皮层也具有激活作用[184‒185]。综上所述,在全身麻醉期间,伤害性刺激反应下的皮层电活动的生理基础是非常复杂的。为了表征大脑对伤害性刺激的反应,目前多使用多模态方法监测麻醉镇痛效果。例如,研究者将不同频率段的EEG数据和肌电(electromyography, EMG)数据输入到模糊推理神经网络中,通过训练得到一个范围为0~99的qNOX指数[186],用于监测由于喉罩插管引起的身体反应,然而引入肌电会导致qNOX受到神经肌肉阻滞剂的影响。高密度EEG数据中蕴含的丰富信息在对伤害性刺激的反应监测方面具有很大的潜力。例如,Hartley等[187]提出并验证了一种基于EEG的监测婴儿对伤害性刺激反应的方法,其采用主成分分析方法对感兴趣的时间窗进行分析,提取伤害性刺激诱发的EEG模式,并与对照组的多通道EEG模式进行统计分析比较。具体来说,他们对每个通道和每个时间点的EEG模式进行t检验,发现伤害性刺激和无伤害性刺激下的大脑活动有显著差异;Hartley等记录到8个t统计量高于97.5%阈值的通道,其中Cz通道存在最显著的差异;值得注意的是,Hartley等旨在解决婴儿无法向医生表达疼痛的问题,这与处在麻醉状态下的患者无法口头报告疼痛的情况相似。

5.5 结合fNIRS进行多模态监测

正如在第2节中提到的,fNIRS可以测量组织氧合和血红蛋白相关参数的变化,并间接测量神经元活动对血流动力学和耗氧量的影响,这些特性使得fNIRS能够辅助单模态电生理方法对麻醉进行监测。EEG和fNIRS同时测量也可用来估计BIS值。最近的研究也对使用单模态fNIRS作为临床麻醉监测方法的可行性进行了评估。例如,Hernandez等[188‒189]在右侧前额叶放置单通道fNIRS传感器,发现从麻醉维持期到恢复期,患者的氧合血红蛋白和血红蛋白显著降低。然后,他们使用fNIRS相关指标作为特征来训练支持向量机(support vector machine, SVM)分类器,训练得到的模型与BIS和MAC相比具有更高的敏感性和特异性。更重要的是,Hernandez等发现fNIRS-SVM方法可以在患者体动之前预测他们的苏醒。此外,多通道fNIRS的应用可能可以进一步改善对麻醉过程中脑血流动力学变化的监测。Liang等[190]设计了一种专用的多通道fNIRS系统,并证明了其对麻醉深度监测的有效性。最近的一项研究评估了多模态EEG-fNIRS技术在麻醉和(或)意识监测中的可行性:Yeom等[191]使用EEG-fNIRS研究了咪达唑仑和丙泊酚镇静时的电生理和血流动力学反应,发现麻醉时额叶和枕顶叶区的低频(频率小于15 Hz)EEG功率逐渐增加,而高频(频率大于15 Hz)EEG功率降低;在意识恢复过程中,被试的EEG时空变化特征仍被保留,说明这些EEG时空模式与麻醉药的作用无关。此外,在无意识和意识恢复期间额顶叶连通性出现了突然的相移,并伴随有轻微的血流动力学波动。最后值得注意的一点是,尽管EEG和fNIRS都可能用于临床,但迄今为止,很少有研究使用fNIRS探索麻醉相关的功能连通性和脑网络变化(图1),而基于EEG的麻醉监测已经广泛应用于临床。鉴于脑网络在麻醉研究中的重要性,本文认为基于fNIRS的脑网络分析方法可能是麻醉研究的未来发展趋势,在现阶段可以作为基于EEG的麻醉监测的辅助工具,以提供更全面的信息。考虑到多模态EEG-fNIRS将继承两种技术的优点,包括fNIRS的不受电磁干扰和方便佩戴,以及EEG的高时间分辨率和灵活配置,本文认为,EEG-fNIRS结合先进的脑网络分析技术,将为下一代麻醉监测系统的开发提供一种非常有前景的方法。

5.6 方法学考虑和未来方向

近十年来,基于脑网络的麻醉与意识研究进展非常迅速,不仅极大地提高了我们对麻醉与意识背后复杂神经机制的认识,同时也展示了脑网络在临床应用中的巨大前景。在此,本文提出了未来值得关注的两个主要研究方向,以促进更加精准便捷的麻醉监测方法的发展。

众所周知,EEG信号质量容易受到外界干扰的影响。对于非临床环境下EEG的非平稳特征和各种生理伪迹(如眨眼、肌肉活动、心跳等),现有的解决方案已相对成熟[192‒193]。然而,复杂的临床手术环境和实时麻醉监测的要求给EEG伪迹去除技术带来了巨大的挑战。高肌电活动和电子设备干扰可能导致BIS值出现虚假升高[194]。此外,在实时监测系统中,自动去除肌电伪迹的方法很少。García-Cossio等[195]使用典型相关分析(canonical correlation analysis, CCA)将EEG分解为多个分量从而去除肌电成分,是少有的自动去除肌电伪迹的方法之一。EEG伪迹去除技术将是未来麻醉研究的一个重要方向。另外,大多数基于EEG脑网络的麻醉研究使用的是静态网络分析方法,并没有体现出EEG高时间分辨率的优势。具体来说,目前用于估计神经生理信号之间连通性的技术并不能充分表征连通性的时间动力学,例如,不同的相位同步方法,包括相位相干[80]、相位滞后[81]和锁相值[84]等,都假设在数据采集过程中功能连通性是平稳的,通过在时间窗口内平均相位差来估计相位同步,忽略了窗口内的时间动态。而基于建模的方法(如GC、PDC、DTF等)需要一定长度的时间序列来构建模型[144]。此外,目前还没有被广泛认可的PAC估计方法[97],现有方法灵敏度相对较差,而且需要较长的实验数据来进行计算和估计。近年来,为了提高功能连通性估计的时间分辨率,基于信息论的方法引起了研究者的关注。例如,Lee等[85]提出了估计相位关系模式时间复杂度的PLE算法。与典型的相位同步方法不同,PLE反映了给定的两个信号之间的交互是否由多样的或刻板的连通性模式组成,能更好地表征相位关系的时间动态。Samiee和Baillet [196]提出了时间分辨PAC(time-resolved PAC, tPAC)来估计动态PAC,该方法可以解析最高一个周期、最优两个周期低频分量的PAC模式。如上所述,高时间分辨率的功能连通性估计方法已经开始在麻醉研究中应用。除了高时间分辨率的功能连通性估计方法,动态功能连通性分析框架在麻醉EEG研究中应用的可行性也需要进一步讨论。首先,最近几项研究[135,155]使用的滑动窗口技术有明显的局限性。一方面,窗长的选择一直存在争议,过短的窗长会增加在分析中引入虚假波动的风险,而过长的窗长又会限制对感兴趣时间点连通性的估计[119]。另一方面,目前的研究多使用典型的矩形窗口,这可能会增加动态功能连通性分析对异常值的敏感性,因为瞬时噪声的增加/去除会引起动态功能连通性时间进程的突变[197]。因此,基于EEG的动态功能连通性分析应参考其他研究[198‒200]采用的窗优化方法,以消除矩形窗的局限性。其次,动态图分析是从动态功能连通性分析中提取脑网络信息的常用方法。现有的麻醉研究侧重于大脑状态的转换过程,对大脑不同网络特征的功能重组缺乏关注。此外,由于动态功能连通性分析的状态识别过程(即K-means聚类)需要长时间的信号采样,其在麻醉监测中应用的可行性有待商榷。虽然动态功能连通性分析在精神分裂症[201]、自闭症[202]、轻度认知障碍(mild cognitive impairment, MCI)[203]等的诊断中得到了广泛应用,但麻醉实时监测的高时间分辨率要求给动态功能连通性分析在麻醉监测中的应用带来了巨大挑战。越来越多的证据表明,大脑网络连接是随时间动态变化的,因此,得益于在表征精细时间尺度上网络级通信的自发变化和相应的时变网络特征的优势,对基于EEG的动态功能连通性分析需要进一步研究,以揭示麻醉的复杂神经机制。

近年来,机器学习方法在大脑疾病诊断领域得到了广泛应用,本文主要关注麻醉意识评估研究,没有详细介绍机器学习在大脑疾病诊断中的应用。对于有兴趣使用机器学习诊断脑疾病的读者,可以参考相关综述[204‒206]和原创性研究[207‒210]。早在20世纪90年代初,机器学习方法就在麻醉意识评估领域被用于区分患者的清醒和麻醉状态[211‒212]。随着麻醉深度指标(如BIS)的日益普及,神经网络等机器学习方法也开始被用于EEG数据分析,其目的是通过EEG的其他特征来近似BIS值[213]。例如,有研究使用人工智能技术和EEG频谱分析来估计麻醉深度,并比较在二次判别分析(quadratic discriminant analysis, QDA)中使用以EEG不同频率段功率为特征的分类准确性[214];Shalbaf等[215]将不同EEG特征(包括β比率、样本熵、Shannon排列熵等)组合输入到一种新的模糊神经网络分类算法——具有模糊限制的自适应神经模糊推理系统中,得到92%的准确率;Hashimoto等[216]总结了人工智能在麻醉学中应用的几个主题,回顾了机器学习在麻醉监测中的应用研究,其中涉及EEG和机器学习在麻醉监测中的研究论文超过40篇。近年来,使用EEG功能连通性作为特征的机器学习方法已经被用于麻醉监测研究当中。例如,Lioi等[136]使用定向相干性作为判断麻醉深度的特征,与BIS和MLAEP进行性能比较。结果表明,机器学习和功能连通性特征结合时,区分清醒和麻醉的性能非常出色,准确率达到了95%。Duclos等[148]使用128通道的EEG数据,比较了基于振幅指标(即AEC)和基于相位指标(即wPLI)的功能连通性特征用于意识状态分类的精度,并使用Python中的scikit-learn模块实现机器学习算法,结果表明,AEC总体上具有更高的分类准确率,特别是对于识别无意识状态,准确率可以达到83.7%。值得关注的是,机器学习与脑网络分析结合用于麻醉和意识监测尚处于起步阶段,我们可以从疾病诊断、认知状态分类等相关领域的研究中参考新的方法和技术。最近,Gao等[217]总结了复杂网络和深度学习在EEG信号分析中的应用,涵盖了脑机接口、神经障碍和认知分析等领域,可以作为麻醉意识状态监测的参考。

在监督机器学习算法应用于麻醉监测之前,需要根据意识状态类别对EEG数据进行标记。目前对麻醉下意识状态的评估和分类依赖于主观评分量表(即RSS、MAAS和SAS),这些量表基于患者对外界干扰的反应程度对意识状态进行评分[25‒27]。然而,意识是主观体验,其在麻醉过程中不一定和患者与外界的连通性或患者的反应性相一致[24]。人在清醒时通常是有意识的,与周围环境相连通,并对环境做出反应;入睡时,反应能力和与环境的连通性会下降,但只有在早期非快速眼动(non-rapid eye movement, NREM)睡眠(富含慢波活动)中,人才会失去意识;意识在夜间的非快速眼动睡眠中出现,在快速眼动睡眠(rapid eye movement, REM)中活跃起来,尽管此时我们仍然与环境没有连通,对环境基本没有反应,但意识依然存在[24]。因此,无反应并不等同于麻醉下的无意识,这一点也提出了麻醉镇静的理想目标:能够判断潜在的意识水平。另一方面,尽管目前的麻醉监测方法得到的频谱特征在时间动态上与麻醉浓度密切相关,但其对麻醉无意识的大脑神经机制的阐释非常有限[218]。如1.1小节所述,脑连通性和网络分析有潜力量化神经回路的整体组织行为,有助于了解麻醉无意识的神经机制,可能成为评估麻醉下潜在意识水平的金标准。因此可以得出结论,与频谱分析相比,脑网络分析在麻醉作用下的意识水平评估中有不可替代的作用。综上所述,机器学习与复杂网络分析相结合是一个非常有价值的研究方向,将大脑网络的可解释特征与先进的数据驱动方法相融合,将有助于开辟麻醉作用下潜在意识状态评估的新途径。

6、 结论

麻醉与意识的研究一直是神经科学领域的重要课题。尽管目前麻醉无意识的神经机制有多种理论假设,但迄今为止还没有一种理论被广泛接受。研究人员采用不同神经成像方法探索麻醉下大脑意识状态的转换过程,结果表明麻醉诱导的无意识并不仅仅是由于单个大脑区域功能受限引起的。全脑监测方法能够提供丰富信息,网络分析能够为揭示麻醉的复杂神经机制提供新的见解。迄今为止,大多数临床指标和监测系统都是基于单通道或双通道EEG来评估意识水平,越来越多的研究表明,这种监测方法会导致对麻醉深度的不准确判断。开发一种方便在手术室中使用,并能准确客观监测麻醉的新技术刻不容缓。本文从脑网络这一新兴技术的简要介绍开始,总结了近年来麻醉与意识脑网络的研究进展;此外,本文提出了未来潜在的研究方向,以扩展麻醉监测领域新技术的研究(包括机器学习、多模态神经成像等)。网络分析与便携式EEG系统相结合,有潜力成为临床麻醉精准监测问题的理想解决方案。

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