住宅建筑需求侧柔性——定义、柔性负荷及量化方法
罗正意 , 彭晋卿 , 曹静宇 , 殷荣欣 , 邹斌 , 谭羽桐 , 严晋跃
工程(英文) ›› 2022, Vol. 16 ›› Issue (9) : 123 -140.
住宅建筑需求侧柔性——定义、柔性负荷及量化方法
Demand Flexibility of Residential Buildings: Definitions, Flexible Loads, and Quantification Methods
本文综述了近年来关于住宅建筑需求侧柔性的定义、柔性负荷及柔性量化方法方面的研究。首先,针对建筑需求侧柔性、运行柔性和能源柔性等不同的术语,进行了系统的比较和区分;其次,对住宅建筑主要柔性负荷的运行特性和柔性能力进行了总结和比较;再次,对柔性负荷的建模方法和柔性量化指标也进行了详细的综述和总结。最后,提出了当前建筑需求侧柔性领域存在的一些亟待解决的问题。研究结果表明当前针对住宅建筑需求侧柔性的研究主要以中央空调、储水式电热水器、湿电器、冰箱和照明为主,分别占现有研究的36.7%、25.7%、14.7%、9.2%和8.3%。这些柔性负荷在运行特性、使用频率和柔性能力
方面存在较大的差异,而对于它们实际的响应特性有待进一步研究。此外,本文给出了用于柔性负荷建模的白箱、灰箱和黑箱模型在不同应用场合下适用性的建议;对于柔性量化指标,现有研究主要从功率、时间、能量、效率、经济性和环保性等维度提出了大量的指标,但是缺少统一的柔性量化体系。本文能够帮助读者更好地理解建筑需求侧柔性、区分与柔性相关的不同的术语、了解住宅建筑不同柔性负荷的运行特性和柔性能力,同时也能为柔性负荷的建模和柔性量化的相关研究提供指导。
This paper reviews recent research on the demand flexibility of residential buildings in regard to definitions, flexible loads, and quantification methods. A systematic distinction of the terminology is made, including the demand flexibility, operation flexibility, and energy flexibility of buildings. A comprehensive definition of building demand flexibility is proposed based on an analysis of the existing definitions. Moreover, the flexibility capabilities and operation characteristics of the main residential flexible loads are summarized and compared. Models and evaluation indicators to quantify the flexibility of these flexible loads are reviewed and summarized. Current research gaps and challenges are identified and analyzed as well. The results indicate that previous studies have focused on the flexibility of central air conditioning, electric water heaters, wet appliances, refrigerators, and lighting, where the proportion of studies focusing on each of these subjects is 36.7%, 25.7%, 14.7%, 9.2%, and 8.3%, respectively. These flexible loads are different in running modes, usage frequencies, seasons, and capabilities for shedding, shifting, and modulation, while their response characteristics are not yet clear. Furthermore, recommendations are given for the application of white-, black-, and grey-box models for modeling flexible loads in different situations. Numerous static flexibility evaluation indicators that are based on the aspects of power, temporality, energy, efficiency, economics, and the environment have been proposed in previous publications, but a consensus and standardized evaluation framework is lacking. This review can help readers better understand building demand flexibility and learn about the characteristics of different residential flexible loads, while also providing suggestions for future research on the modeling techniques and evaluation metrics of residential building demand flexibility.
| Year | Flexible resources | Market | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Supply-side | Demand-side | ||||||||||||
| Onsite power generation | District heating | District cooling | Power-to-heat | Thermal energy storage | Electric energy storage | Others | HVACs | Electric vehicles | Deferred electrical appliances | Lighting | |||
| 2020 [12] | ???? | ???? | |||||||||||
| 2016 [13] | ???? | ||||||||||||
| 2018 [14] | ???? | ||||||||||||
| 2018 [15] | ???? | ||||||||||||
| 2018 [16] | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | |||||||
| 2015 [17] | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | |||||||
| 2018 [18] | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ||||||||
| 2021 [19] | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | ???? | |||||||
| Set | Keywords | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Residential OR home OR household OR appliance | Set the search scope to be residential buildings |
| 2 | “Energy flexibility” OR “demand flexibility” OR “load flexibility” OR “operation flexibility” OR “demand response” OR “load shift*” OR “load shed*” OR “load shav*” OR “load reduc*” | Set the keywords related to energy flexibility |
| 3 | Quanti* OR estimat* OR calculat* OR evaluat* OR defin* | Set the keywords related to quantification |
| Continents | Countries | Ratio | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Europe | Denmark | 10.1% | 54.4% |
| Italy | 7.6% | ||
| Belgium | 6.3% | ||
| Ireland | 3.8% | ||
| Sweden | 3.8% | ||
| Portugal | 2.5% | ||
| France | 3.8% | ||
| Greece | 2.5% | ||
| Spain | 1.3% | ||
| Germany | 3.8% | ||
| UK | 2.5% | ||
| Luxembourg | 1.3% | ||
| The Netherlands | 5.1% | ||
| Asia | China | 15.2% | 22.8% |
| Singapore | 2.5% | ||
| Japan | 1.3% | ||
| India | 1.3% | ||
| The Republic of Korea | 1.3% | ||
| Iran | 1.3% | ||
| North America | 17.7% | 21.5% | |
| 3.8% | |||
| Africa | South Africa | 1.3% | 1.3% |
| Source | Terminology | Definition |
|---|---|---|
| Tang et al. [19] | Building energy flexibility | The ability to reshape the normal building consumption pattern under various requests from a power grid |
| Jensen et al. [1] | Building energy flexibility | ① The energy flexibility of a building is the ability to manage its demand and generation according to local climate conditions, user needs, and energy-network requirements; ② energy flexibility of buildings will thus allow for demand-side management/load control and thereby demand response based on the requirements of the surrounding energy networks |
| Johra et al. [45] | Building energy flexibility | The capacity to shift in time heating use from high price to low price periods while insuring good indoor thermal comfort |
| Neukomm et al. [23] | Building demand flexibility | Capability of distributed energy resources to adjust a building’s load profile across different timescales |
| De Coninck et al. [46] | Building energy flexibility | The ability to deviate from its reference electric load profile |
| Nuytten et al. [47] | Building energy flexibility | The maximum time a certain power draw can be delayed or additionally called upon at a certain moment during the day |
| D’hulst et al. [8] | Flexibility of appliances | The power increases and decreases that are possible within these functional and comfort limits, combined with how long the changes can be sustained |
| Implications | Previous definitions | Proposed definition |
|---|---|---|
| Objective | To decrease energy consumption at peak time | To curtail a building’s peak loads, ensure utility grid stability, etc. |
| Principle | Mostly not considered | Not compromising end-user interests |
| Application scope | Limited application scenarios | Various energy networks such as heating networks, utility grids, microgrids, etc. |
| Direction | Decrease energy consumption | Decrease or increase energy consumption |
| Grid-interaction | Energy tariffs | Energy tariffs, local renewable generations, and CO2 tax |
| Stakeholders | Individual stakeholders | End users, aggregators, and utility grids |
| Flexibility measures | Load shifting and load shedding | Load shifting, load shedding, and load modulation (e.g., frequency regulation and voltage support) |
| Demand strategies | Response time | Ramping time | Response duration | Grid services | Potential |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Set-point adjustment | < 2 min | 5‒30 min | 0.5‒4.0 h | Peak load reduction [26,35,42,55‒56,58,61,63‒66] | · A maximum decrease of 0.005 kW∙m-2 in peak power [55] · A maximum load decrease of 1.2 kW per household [42] · A maximum load reduction decrease of 1.9 kW per household [35] · 15%‒20% load reduction [65] · 22%‒37% load reduction [66] · 200‒800 W load reduction [26] |
| Pre-cooling/pre-heating | / | / | 0.5‒3.0 h | Peak load shifting [43,57,59‒60,62,67‒68] | · Average 800 W load reduction [67] · 15%‒30% load shifting [59] · 12‒66 kWh load shifting [57] · 36 Wh∙m-2 load shifting [43] · 25 kWh∙m-2 year load shifting [60] |
| Static pressure adjustment, supply water temperature resetting, frequency control | < 1 min | / | Seconds to minutes | Frequency regulation [69‒72] | · 15% of the fan power can be used for frequency regulation [69] · 4 GW power can be provided by variable speed fans for frequency regulation in the United States [70] |
| Category | Appliance | Capability | Operation characteristics | Energy consumption changes | Time property | Weather property | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Running mode | Usage frequency | Seasonal features | ||||||
| Adjustable loads | HVAC | Shed Shift, and modulate | Intermittently | Almost every day in winter and summer | Various operation modes in winter and summer | Increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant | Dependent | Dependent |
| Electric water heaters | Shed Shift, and modulate | Intermittently | Running all day | Various temperature settings and standby heat losses | Increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant | Dependent | Dependent | |
| Refrigerators | Shed Shift, and modulate | Intermittently | Running all day | No obvious seasonal differences | Increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant | Dependent | Dependent | |
| Shifting loads | Dishwashers | Shift | Finite cycle with sequential processing | Depending on occupants; twice a day or once a day | No obvious seasonal differences | Remaining constant | Dependent | Independent |
| Washing machines | Shift | Finite cycle with sequential processing | Depending on occupants; different on weekdays, weekends, and in different seasons | Various usage frequencies in different seasons | Remaining constant | Dependent | Independent | |
| Clothes dryers | Shift | Finite cycle with sequential processing | Depending on occupants; different on weekdays, weekends, and in different seasons | Various usage frequencies in different seasons | Remaining constant | Dependent | Independent | |
| Shedding loads | Lighting | Shed Modulate | Continuously | Used every day | No obvious seasonal differences | Decreasing | Independent | Dependent |
| Model type | Flexible load | Method/software | References | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| White-box | HVACs | TRNSYS | [26,58] | Flexibility evaluation of individual HVACs; sensitivity analysis |
| EnergyPlus | [55,59‒61] | |||
| Modelica | [35,46] | |||
| Others | [43,57,62‒63,68] | |||
| Electric water heaters | Physical model | [73‒76,78‒80,83‒85] | Optimal scheduling of individual flexible loads | |
| Refrigerators | Physical model | [91] | Optimal scheduling of individual flexible loads | |
| Grey-box | HVACs | RC model | [38,121‒126] | Optimal scheduling of individual or multiple flexible loads |
| RC model | [7,64,129‒133] | Flexibility evaluation at aggregation levels | ||
| Refrigerators | RC model | [88,90] | Flexibility potential evaluation | |
| Wet appliances | Simplified model | [81‒82,103‒111] | Optimal scheduling of multiple flexible loads | |
| Black-box | HVACs | Machine learning | [42,56,65] | Flexibility evaluation at aggregation levels |
| Electric water heaters | Statistical method with measured data | [8] | Flexibility evaluation at aggregation levels | |
| Wet appliances | Statistical method with measured data | [8,30,50,92‒93,96‒102] | Flexibility evaluation at aggregation levels |
| Model type | Research objective | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flexibility potential evaluation | Optimal scheduling/control | ||||
| Individual flexible load | Multiple flexible load | Individual flexible load | Multiple flexible load | ||
| White-box | ???? | ???? | |||
| Grey-box | ???? | ???? | ???? | ||
| Black-box | ???? | ||||
| Category | Characteristic | Indicators | Unit | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Direct quantification indicators | Power | Pfle | kW | [31,35,67,136] |
| ΔP | kW | [37,40,46,48,65,86,90,116‒117,122] | ||
| ΔPave | kW | [26,101‒102] | ||
| Inta | kW∙m-2 | [29,55] | ||
| Inth | kW per household | [35,42,101] | ||
| Ramdown | kW∙min-1 | [61] | ||
| Temporality | Tre | min | [29] | |
| Tra | min | [29] | ||
| Tdur, fle | h | [26,31,34,61] | ||
| Tdur, bou | h | [26,61] | ||
| Energy | Edif, fle | kWh | [26,30,34,38,43,58‒61,68,98‒100,105,138,141] | |
| Inte | kWh∙m-2 | [43,60] | ||
| μ | % | [59,65‒66,69,82,104] | ||
| Edif, bou | kWh | [43,57,60] | ||
| Edif, tot | kWh | [29] | ||
| Efficiency | η | — | [38,57‒58,60,68,138] | |
| Ffle | — | [37,86,91] | ||
| Indirect quantification indicators | Economy | Cop, tot | USD | [47,97] |
| ϕ | % | [82,103,108,110] | ||
| Ffle, cos | — | [38,68,138‒139] | ||
| Environment | Em | t CO2 | [139] |
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