建筑全生命周期碳排放——内涵、计算和减量

黄祖坚 ,  周浩 ,  苗志坚 ,  唐浩 ,  林波荣 ,  庄惟敏

工程(英文) ›› 2024, Vol. 35 ›› Issue (4) : 120 -146.

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工程(英文) ›› 2024, Vol. 35 ›› Issue (4) : 120 -146. DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2023.08.019
研究论文

建筑全生命周期碳排放——内涵、计算和减量

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Life-Cycle Carbon Emissions (LCCE) of Buildings: Implications, Calculations, and Reductions

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摘要

起源于一般产品和服务的生命周期评价方法已逐渐被应用于建筑全生命周期碳排放(LCCE)的研究。本文通过文献综述厘清建筑LCCE内涵、计算和减量的相关研究现状。基于ISO 21930规定的建筑全生命周期阶段划分框架和排放因子法的基本原理,重点剖析全球161项研究共826个建筑碳排放计算案例。梳理建材生产、建造、使用、报废阶段和附加模块的碳排放计算方法,并统计获得各项结果分布区间。基于建筑碳排放分布与减碳热点的分析,从减少建材和能源活动数据、降低建材和能源碳排放因子、利用系统附加效益等6个方面,评估建筑碳减量技术要点和效益。最后,总结现有建筑LCCE研究目标与思路、计算方法、基础参数及技术路径存在的问题和挑战,并提出相应的发展建议。

Abstract

The life-cycle assessment method, which originates from general products and services, has gradually come to be applied to investigations of the life-cycle carbon emissions (LCCE) of buildings. A literature review was conducted to clarify LCCE implications, calculations, and reductions in the context of buildings. A total of 826 global building carbon emission calculation cases were obtained from 161 studies based on the framework of the building life-cycle stage division stipulated by ISO 21930 and the basic principles of the emission factor (EF) approach. The carbon emission calculation methods and results are discussed herein, based on the modules of production, construction, use, end-of-life, and supplementary benefits. According to the hotspot distribution of a building’s carbon emissions, carbon reduction strategies are classified into six groups for technical content and benefits analysis, including reducing the activity data pertaining to building materials and energy, reducing the carbon EFs of the building materials and energy, and exploiting the advantages of supplementary benefits. The research gaps and challenges in current building LCCE studies are summarized in terms of research goals and ideas, calculation methods, basic parameters, and carbon reduction strategies; development suggestions are also proposed.

关键词

建筑碳排放 / 隐含碳排放 / 运行碳排放 / 系统边界 / 活动数据 / 碳排放因子 / 生命周期评价 / 碳减排

Key words

Building carbon emissions / Embodied carbon emissions / Operational carbon emissions / System boundary / Activity data / Carbon emission factor / Life-cycle assessment / Carbon reduction

Highlight

・Connotation of building life cycle carbon emissions are clarified based on literature review;

・Calculation methods and results of 826 global building carbon emission calculation cases are organized for five modules;

・Carbon reduction strategies are classified into six groups for technical content and benefits analysis;

・Current research gaps and challenges are summarized and development suggestions are proposed.

引用本文

引用格式 ▾
黄祖坚,周浩,苗志坚,唐浩,林波荣,庄惟敏. 建筑全生命周期碳排放——内涵、计算和减量[J]. 工程(英文), 2024, 35(4): 120-146 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2023.08.019

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1 引言

作为全球应对气候变化努力的一部分,人们已对建筑建造和运行过程中的碳排放开展了大量研究。工业革命后,人类机械化生产活动快速增加,造成急剧增长的能源消耗和温室气体(greenhouse gas, GHG)排放,逐渐打破了自然界原有的GHG排放与吸收过程大抵相等的动态平衡。在此背景下,1997年《京都议定书》在日本通过,正式督促各签署国控制GHG排放。2021年11月,联合国气候变化框架公约(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC)第26次缔约方大会(COP26)召开,制定了《巴黎协定》实施细则,提出“在本世纪末将全球平均气温升幅控制在工业化前水平以上2 ℃以内、并力争控制在1.5 ℃之内”的目标任务[1]。这是首次以法律形式颁布了全球气温控制目标[2]。根据2018年联合国政府间气候变化专门委员会(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC)的一份报告,要实现升温不高于1.5 ℃的控制目标,全球2030年前碳排放须比2010年减少40%~50%,2050年前应实现碳中和[3]。根据2021年联合国环境规划署(United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP)的一份报告,2020年建筑行业CO2排放占全球总量的37%,其中27%来自建筑运行,另外10%来自建筑材料生产。建筑运行的27%中,9%是直接排放,剩余18%为建筑电力和商品热力消耗产生的间接排放[4]。

IPCC将碳排放源归为工业、电力、建筑和交通四大部门,在宏观层面进行的碳排放统计中,建筑运行产生的直接和间接碳排放被归入建筑部门,建材生产碳排放则通常被归入工业部门。然而,就建筑全生命周期碳排放(LCCE)而言,建材工业是建材产品的生产端,而建筑部门是其消费端,建材产品的生产和运输是由建筑部门需求拉动的。因此,在采取措施落实建筑LCCE减量任务的过程中,除建筑运行产生的直接和间接碳排放外,还应承担建材生产和运输引起的碳排放责任。

建筑LCCE研究是发现全生命周期碳排放热点,进而制定碳减排方案的有效方法。但当前各研究采用的具体方法存在显著差别,不同案例之间缺乏可比较性,有时对同一问题可得出截然相反的结论,这阻碍了就典型建筑碳排放强度形成共识并进一步制定碳减排目标。为此,本研究致力于通过文献综述厘清建筑LCCE是什么(内涵)、怎么算(计算方法)、怎么低碳(碳量技术)相关议题的研究进展,总结当前存在的问题和挑战并提出相应的发展建议(附录A中的图S1)。

2 综述的研究

本文梳理了全球161篇建筑碳排放的研究文献,含85项建筑LCCE研究、69项仅针对隐含碳排放(ECE)的研究以及7项仅针对运行碳排放(OCE)的研究。第3.1.2节统计了这些案例对建筑生命周期各阶段和子项目的计算情况。161篇文献共包含826个研究案例。其地域分布、气候类型、建筑功能类型、建筑结构类型、建筑层数、建筑面积和建筑预期使用寿命相关数据如附录A中的图S2所示。

3 建筑LCCE的内涵

3.1 建筑生命周期评价

3.1.1 生命周期评价、生命周期能源评价和生命周期碳排放评价之间的区别与联系

与生命周期碳排放评价(life cycle carbon emissions assessment, LCCEA)相关的概念有生命周期评价(life cycle assessment, LCA)和生命周期能源评价(life cycle energy assessment, LCEA)[5]。LCA起源最早,如今已被不同程度地应用于建筑和其他相关行业[6]。在一个建筑系统中,LCA评估所有输入端的资源投入,包含土地、能源、水和材料等,以及输出端的环境负荷,包括全球变暖、臭氧消耗、酸化、富营养化和光化学烟雾等。LCEA和LCCEA均可视为LCA的一部分,其中LCEA主要关注输入端的能源消耗,具体包含总能源需求、一次能源消耗、可再生能源利用等方面[5],而LCCEA关注输出端的环境影响,核心内容是与全球变暖相关的GHG排放(图1)。

3.1.2 建筑生命周期阶段划分

国际标准化组织(International Organization for Standardization, ISO)在2017年发布的ISO 21930标准,正式形成了建筑LCA的国际规则[7]。该标准形成专门针对建筑活动制定的环境产品声明(environmental product declaration, EPD)的原则、规范和要求,为建筑产品和服务制定产品种类规则(product category rules, PCR),提出EPD报告中生命周期清单分析(LCI)和生命周期影响评估(LCIA)的计算规则。ISO 21930将建筑全生命周期划分为建材生产(A1‒A3)、建造(A4‒A5)、使用(B1‒B7)、报废(C1‒C4)和边界外的补充效益(D)5大模块,共17子项。这为建筑LCCE计算提供了生命周期阶段划分和系统边界界定的依据(图2)。

D模块涉及系统边界之外由于材料再利用、回收和(或)能源回收的潜在净减碳效益。为方便解释,以下仅以“建筑材料的回收”为代表进行讨论。对于建筑LCCE计算,这一模块对使用了可回收材料的建筑的碳折减效益评估至关重要。D模块建筑材料的回收位于两个建筑生命周期之间,既处在前一个生命周期的末端,又处在后一个生命周期的开端。所处的这一特殊位置造成的一个问题是如何分配其回收产生的碳折减效益。现有标准/导则中不同程度地提及这一模块,但仍缺少对其碳折减效益进行分摊的统一规则。

本质上,回收建筑材料是指在前一个生命周期产生的可再生废料,被用于作为后一个生命周期的原料。世界资源研究所(World Resources Institute, WRI)和世界可持续发展工商理事会(World Business Council for Sustainable Development, WBCSD)提出两类方法:一种完全将所有的碳折减效益分配到上一个生命周期;另一种完全相反[8]。欧洲委员会(European Commission)提出产品环境足迹(product environmental footprint, PEF)法,让前、后两个生命周期对半分摊回收建筑材料的碳折减效益[9]。在此基础上,Jiang等[10]提出可区分混合回收和独立回收的改进方法,并在一个钢铁生产的LCA中验证了其可行性。在这种方法中,应考虑各种可回收材料之间的差异。

3.1.3 综述的研究中建筑生命周期各阶段的完整性

实际应用中,ISO 21930并未被严格执行,而是根据具体案例碳排放计算目标、数据可获取性等因素进行调整。在85项LCCE研究中,完整考虑了隐含碳排放相关阶段(A1‒A3、A4‒A5、B1‒B5、C1‒C4)、运行碳排放相关阶段(B6‒B7)和补充效益(D)的仅有7项(8.2%),计算了除D以外其他所有阶段的有23项(27.1%)。在69项ECE研究中,完整考虑了隐含碳排放4个阶段的有3项,在此基础上还考虑了补充效益的则仅有两项(表1 [11173])。

3.2 碳排放

3.2.1 温室气体类型与建筑排放源

狭义的碳排放仅包含CO2,但如今谈论碳排放时,更多泛指温室气体(greenhouse gases, GHG)排放。IPCC明确了数十种GHG,并且还在不断增补和更新[174]。《京都议定书》规定了其中影响较大、须加以控制的6种,除CO2以外,还有甲烷(methane, CH4)、氧化亚氮(nitrous oxide, N2O)、氢氟碳化合物(hydrofluorocarbons, HFCs)、全氟碳化合物(perfluorinated chemicals, PFCs)、六氟化硫(sulfur hexafluoride, SF6)。这6种GHG中,CO2在大气中的含量最高,是GHG控制和削减的重点,其他GHG含量较低,但以全球变暖潜势(global warming potential, GWP)衡量,其单位质量产生的温室效应是CO2的数十到数万倍。

学界对各类GHG的GWP值及建筑相关排放源有大致统一的认识,但对于建筑碳排放计算所应计入的GHG类型尚未形成共识。所有的案例研究都计入了CO2,它产生于建筑全生命周期的各个阶段。除CO2外,CH4、N2O是另外两种得到较多关注的GHG。N2O来源于为满足人们生活需求,如烹饪,而进行的化石燃料和生物质燃烧,前者包含煤炭、石油和天然气,后者包含农作物秸秆、树皮、锯末、花生壳等。CH4主要来源于厨余、生鲜垃圾、生活污水、沼气池、垃圾填埋等。根据香港环境保护署调研[175],CO2、CH4和N2O占各种GHG排放的95%以上。Sim等[69]研究韩国一栋高层住宅的隐含碳排放,区分了CO2、CH4和N2O三种GHG,计算表明混凝土是CO2的最大来源,钢材是CH4和N2O的最大来源。Zhang等[56]在香港的一项案例研究中考虑了上述三种GHG,表明65.6%的CH4来自使用阶段,33.8%来自建材生产。木结构建筑拆除后如进行垃圾填埋,产生的CH4是建筑碳排放最主要的来源之一[152,176]。Dodoo等[128]在木材填埋碳排放的计算中,认为CO2和CH4分别贡献50%。

非CO2类GHG的另一个重要类型是氟化物,来源于建筑空调、制冷剂、灭火系统及一些与保温隔热有关的气溶胶和发泡剂[174]。Jiang和Hu [177]指出中国建筑由于制冷工质泄露导致的氢氟烃、氢氟氯烃排放,相当于1亿tCO2e。由于GWP极高,含氟制冷剂泄漏导致相当大的碳排放当量,但几乎没有在其他综述的研究中得到讨论(表2 [174,178180])。

3.2.2 建筑碳排放方式

建筑碳排放方式可归为直接、间接和隐含三种。直接和间接排放主要产生在建筑运行阶段。其中,直接碳排放主要来自建筑物内部发生的燃油、燃气等化石能源的燃烧过程,如使用燃气和散煤进行供暖、炊事和生产生活热水等,也包括含碳材料由于化学反应产生的GHG释放。间接碳排放是指建筑物消耗的,由外界输入的电力、热量和冷量所附带的碳排放。隐含碳排放主要承载于建筑材料及其组成的建筑部件,产生在建材原材料开采,建材产品生产,建筑建造、使用、维护、维修、更新、替换、拆除,废弃物处置,回收再利用和在各阶段进行的运输过程(表2)。

3.3 对LCCE系统边界的讨论

已有许多前人的文献综述表明不同研究之间由于系统边界界定不同,导致研究结果存在明显差异。例如,Anand和Amor [181]研究建筑LCA的发展现状和面临的挑战,表明不同研究对建筑生命周期的定义和范围理解因情况而异,所开发模型的系统边界各不相同。类似地,Vilches等[182]和Schwartz等[183]针对建筑维修改造LCA的综述表明,不同研究案例之间的主要差异是由于对LCA系统边界存在不同解释导致的。

在实践中,由于关注对象不同,并不能要求所有研究须考虑一致的时间维度和GHG内容。例如,建材生产企业开发某种建材主要涉及“从摇篮到大门”的阶段;对于木材垃圾填埋需要考虑CH4释放,而对于混凝土和钢材则没有必要。但在研究报告中应陈述相关信息,以明确所得结论的前提条件和适用范围。本文基于对建筑LCCE系统边界的梳理,认为研究中应明确以下三个维度(表3 [38,44,51,56,58,97,101,138,140,160,184189]):

(1)空间维度,即研究对象或碳排放源,包括建筑材料、构件、系统乃至周边环境的4种不同层面。

(2)时间维度,包含建筑生命周期长度和阶段划分。前者是建筑的使用寿命;后者通常涉及“从摇篮到大门”“从摇篮到场地”“从摇篮到运行”“从摇篮到坟墓”以及“从摇篮到摇篮”的5类不同跨度,也可以区分为使用前、使用和使用后的三大模块。

(3)碳排放内容,包含GHG类型、碳排放源和碳排放方式。这三方面如3.2.2节所述。

4 建筑LCCE的计算

4.1 碳排放计量的基本方法

碳排放计量的基本方法有实测法、质量平衡法和排放因子法,其基础均是对碳流的分析。

(1)实测法。实测法是一种基于测量的碳排放计量方法,包含现场测量和非现场测量。现场测量一般是通过碳排放连续监测系统,采集碳排放浓度和流速数据,直接计算碳排放量。非现场测量则通过采样、送检,通过专业部门的设备和技术定量分析现场碳排放量。

(2)质量平衡法。通过跟踪碳载体,对整体碳物质流进行平衡分析,忽略单元内部的反应过程。以CO2排放量为例,通过系统输入端与输出端C元素含量之差乘以CO2/C质量换算系数(即44/12),得出CO2排放量。

(3)排放因子法。排放因子法基于“活动数据(AD)×碳排放因子(EF)”的基本原则。其中EF是反映各类活动碳排放强度的碳排放因子,AD是直接和间接导致碳排放的各类活动量,如化石燃料、电力、热力以及各类材料的消耗。

实际应用中,实测法仅能采集直接碳排放数据,因此局限于产生直接碳排放的领域,例如,在水泥生产初始阶段煅烧石灰石的过程,并且对不同GHG浓度数据的采集技术要求高。质量平衡法对于某种具体建材生产而言相对可行,但由于建筑系统输入和输出的物料类型众多且往往含碳量不稳定,使得碳物质流难以准确厘清。对建筑工程而言,唯有碳排放因子法相对可行。为满足其计算,需要确定AD和EF两方面参数。这些参数优先采用一手数据,当一手数据缺乏时,可从既有的研究中获取相关数据(图3)。

AD的确定具体包含过程分析法(process analysis, PA)、投入-产出法(input-output, IO)和混合LCA(Hybrid LCA)法。PA和IO是两类基本方法,在本文综述的161项研究中累计提及180项方法应用,其中基于PA方法的有138项(76.7%)、基于IO方法的有29项(16.1%)。对于建筑单体,PA方法对于识别碳排放源并进一步制定碳减排方案尤其重要。此外,有13项(7.2%)提及采用Hybrid-LCA方法,该方法是对PA和IO的综合。IO方法适用于宏观层面的碳排放研究,但其得出的结果通常不含详细信息。Zhang等[25]在一个住宅建筑研究中,表明PA结合混合LCA的方法可捕捉到64%的碳减排潜力,而IO由于方法学的原因未能发现这一点,因此纯IO方法不适合单体建筑碳排放的详细评估。Chang等[27]基于中国一栋教育建筑的计算分析,认为IO方法可用于粗略估计典型建筑项目的总体情况,而基于PA的混合模型更能有效地呈现项目特性。

4.2 功能单元的选择

文献中采用了多种功能单元(FU),这与所研究的对象相匹配。对于建筑材料,多采用单位体积或重量作为FU,例如,Dong等[51]、Gan等[44]、Xu等[190]对混凝土、钢材、竹材产品的碳排放计算。对于建筑构件,通常以单位建筑构件为FU,例如,Li等[30]、Liu等[32]、González等[162]对预制混凝土(PC)楼梯产品、桩、土墙、秸秆草砖墙的碳排放计算。对于建筑系统,采用的FU有多种,主要是“整栋建筑”“单位建筑面积”“单位建筑面积每年”,这些FU可通过建筑面积和预期使用寿命相互转换。

FU的选择可影响对碳排放计算结果的理解,例如,Filimonau等[137]在一项针对酒店建筑碳排放的研究中,当采用“单位建筑面积”作为FU时,大型酒店碳排放强度比小型酒店高14%,但当采用“每客人×每夜”(guest night)作为FU时,该值被扩大到67%。Bastos等[116]对比葡萄牙的三栋居住建筑,当以“每平方米×每年”作为FU时,结果显示大型建筑的碳排放强度更低,而如果以“每人×每年”作为FU时,比较结论恰好相反。本文以“单位建筑面积”和“单位建筑面积每年”作为FU。

4.3 活动数据计算方法、结果和影响

对以上案例进行方差分析,LCCE分为ECE和OCE两组,案例分组考虑建筑本体相关的结构和功能以及外部条件相关的国家/地区和气候,其中功能和气候区分为大类和子类,方差分析结果如表4所示,各组目录及所含数据数量详见附录A中的表S2。这些方差分析的结论被作为在4.3.1节和4.3.2节中进行ECE和OCE计算结果分组分析的依据。

方差分析结果表明,结构类型、国家/地区、气候区组之间ECE存在显著差异,其中结构组P值仅6.43×10-15,国家/地区和气候组P值分别为1.10×10-6和3.79×10-6,均达到差异显著水平。反之,功能组P值为0.202,表明差异不显著。对于OCE,方差分析结果表明,除结构组差异不显著外,建筑功能、国家/地区、气候组OCE存在显著差异,其P值均小于2×10-16。与此同时,气候及功能的子类组差异也显著。

如3.1.2节所述,本文梳理的161项研究共826个计算案例中,大部门并没有进行完整的LCCE计算。以下将基于案例中可获取的数据,对各阶段AD计算方法、结果和影响进行分析。统计表明,不同案例计算结果存在大幅差异。因而在以下分析中,通过四分位法,以中位数、第一分位数和第三分位数描述计算结果和影响(图4图5表5表6)。

4.3.1 建筑隐含碳排放

综述的案例研究一共提供有564组ECE数据,其中混凝土、钢、木和砌体结构建筑案例最多,分别有267、63、99和46组。统计结果如图6和附录A中的表S3所示。四类结构建筑案例的隐含碳排放中位数(ECEmed)分别为436.0、297.9、182.1、338.8 kgCO2e·m-2,其中木结构最低。此外,欧洲有6个生物基结构建筑案例,其ECEmed为101.0 kgCO2e·m-2,明显呈现出相较其他结构类型的低碳优势。

由于各国能源碳排放强度、建筑结构设计和建材碳排放因子基础参数等方面存在不同,各国/地区之间建筑案例的ECE统计结果也表现出一定差异。总体上,中国案例组ECEmed (ECE25%~ECE75%)为448.0 (366.6~566.4) kgCO2e·m-2,其中位数低于澳大利亚组,但明显高于欧洲、北美洲和亚洲其他国家。

ECE与以建筑材料为载体的相关生产和建造等活动过程密切相关,因此受建筑结构类型影响。方差分析结果也显示出建筑结构组的P值最小。因此,以下选择混凝土、钢和木结构组,对研究案例各阶段ECE计算方法、结果和影响进行分析。

(1)建材生产阶段(A1‒A3)。①计算方法。建材生产碳排放(ECEA1‒A3)包含原材料提取、运输和建筑材料产品生产的三部分,在本文统计的161项研究中,有149项考虑了ECEA1‒A3,其中大多数(82.6%)研究将A1~A3作为一个整体,通过建材产品的EF与建材用量的乘积计算ECEA1‒A3。有26项(17.4%)研究区分了三个阶段,目的在于计算和分析原材料提取、运输,特别是建材生产过程的碳排放强度[44,76,190]。②计算结果和影响。综述的案例研究共提供234组A1‒A3阶段的碳排放计算结果,总体上,ECEmed (ECE25%~ECE75%)为321.2 (155.2~476.3) kg O2e·m-2,该值在建筑LCCE中占比15.6% (9.7%~28.9%)(图4图5)。对于混凝土、钢和木结构建筑,ECEA1‒A3总体上依次下降,三者ECEmed分别为419.3、182.2和130.8 kgCO2e·m-2图7、附录A中的表S4)。

计算项目应包含承重结构、围护结构和技术设备系统,但826项计算案例中,除138项未明确计算内容外,其余691项中仅65项(9.4%)进行了完整的计算[97,101],554项(80.2%)只计算了主要建材,另外69项(10.0%)只计算了承重结构的材料消耗。如表7所示,主要建材的生产碳排放是构成建筑总ECE的主体[14,16,104,121,191194]。从建筑构成元素角度,承重结构、地基、围护结构是建材碳排放的主要部分。忽略技术设备系统会导致建筑ECE的低估[41]。

(2)建造阶段(A4‒A5)。①计算方法。在本文统计的161项研究中,有100项(62.1%)考虑了建造阶段碳排放(ECEA4‒A5),其中91项结合案例进行计算,另外9项引用经验数据。建材运输碳排放(ECEA4)计算方法相对统一,因为各类交通工具单位运输活动对应的碳EF参数较为充实,对这部分碳排放的计算只需给出建材重量和运输距离,其中运输距离多基于假设,如50 km [88,110]、300 km [195]等。现场施工碳排放(ECEA5)计算内容繁杂,包括建造设备的燃料燃烧、现场电力消耗、组装和杂项工作产生的直接排放,以及施工设备运输和异地施工相关人员活动产生的间接排放等[40,156]。除结合项目进行独立计算外,一些研究引用前人经验公式或数据[62,110,138,157]。②计算结果和影响。综述的案例研究共提供172组A4‒A5阶段的碳排放计算结果,总体上,ECEmed (ECE25%~ECE75%)为32.2 (14.4~56.7) kgCO2e·m-2,该值在建筑LCCE中占比1.6% (0.9%~2.4%)(图4图5)。对于混凝土、钢和木结构案例,ECEA4‒A5中位数ECEmed分别为46.3、15.7和31.5 kgCO2e·m-2图8、附录A中的表S5)。

Gustavsson等[123]基于文献综述,认为已有研究更多地给出能耗数据而非碳排放数据,且大多数未明确是终端能源还是一次能源。既有研究普遍忽视人员活动[11],但Williams等[136]及Cole和Kennan [196]在加拿大和英国的案例研究表明工人通勤造成的碳排放不可忽略。此外,建造阶段尤其是现场施工的碳排放源复杂,因项目实际情况和计算方法等方面差异,不同案例建造碳排放计算结果可存在高达两个数量级的差异。Cole [156]调查了加拿大不同类型结构建筑案例施工阶段的碳排放,其中钢和混凝土结构建筑施工能耗计算结果为3~7 MJ·m-2和20~120 MJ·m-2,而Guggemos和Horvath [161]在美国的相应计算结果分别为418 MJ·m-2和939 MJ·m-2,大幅高于Cole [156]报告的相应值。

(3)使用阶段(B1‒B5)。①计算方法。使用阶段的隐含碳排放(ECEB1‒B5)包含涉及的建材、设施设备产品等实物的维护、维新、更新、替换以及为此进行的运输所产生的碳排放。该部分碳排放被称为“复发隐含碳排放”,与此相对应对地,从原材料提取到施工结束的碳排放(A1‒A5)被称为“初始隐含碳排放”。在本文统计的161项研究中,有59项(36.6%)考虑了使用阶段隐含碳排放,其中43项结合案例进行计算,另有16项引用经验数据。对ECEB1‒B5的计算,最典型方法是根据建筑和各类建材的预期使用寿命推算建筑使用期间各类建材的替换次数,再计算相应的“复发隐含碳排放”。Suzuki和Oka [59]、Kofoworola和Gheewala [88]、Petrovic等[129]、Iddon和Firth [143]、Mosteiro-Romero等[172]采用建筑材料预期使用寿命估算建筑使用期间的ECEB1‒B5。另一些案例引用前人研究所得的经验数据进行估算[95,115]。②计算结果和影响。综述的案例研究共提供72组B1‒B5阶段的碳排放计算结果,总体上,ECEmed (ECE25%~ECE75%)为114.9 (38.3~308.8) kgCO2e·m-2,该值在建筑LCCE中占比7.1% (3.1%~15.5%)(图4图5)。对于混凝土、钢和木结构案例,ECEB1‒B5中位数ECEmed分别为232.6、23.0和243.4 kgCO2e·m-2。由于采集到的钢结构案例数据仅有4组,统计结果可能存在代表性局限(图9、附录A中的表S6)。Marzouk等[81]、Kumanayake和Luo [92]、Ortiz等[120]的案例研究分别显示ECEB1‒B5贡献了建筑LCCE的0.05%、3.23%和1.7%。Bastos等[116]、Petrovic等[129]、Williams等[136]、Moncaster和Symons [139]、Fay等[198]的案例研究分别显示ECEB1‒B5贡献了建筑总ECE的28.1%~29.3%、37%、44%、17%和40%。

(4)报废阶段(C1‒C4)。①计算方法。在报废阶段,碳排放计算内容包括建筑拆除、废弃物运输和处置等项目。在本文统计的161项研究中,有70项(43.5%)考虑了报废阶段的碳排放(ECEC1‒C4),其中53项结合案例进行计算,另外17项引用经验数据。对于建筑拆除和废弃物运输,与建造阶段的现场施工和建材运输过程类似,通过汇总使用的相关机械能耗量和运输量计算。废弃物处置碳排放的计算方法由处置方式决定,但该阶段碳排放的计算方法和基础参数匮乏,实际计算中多基于假设[63,95,138]。②计算结果和影响。综述的案例研究共提供150组C1‒C4阶段的碳排放计算结果,总体上,ECEmed (ECE25%~ ECE75%)为20.9 (5.0~41.3) kgCO2e·m-2,该值在建筑LCCE中占比1.2% (0.3%~2.6%)(图4图5)。对于混凝土、钢和木结构案例,ECEC1‒C4中位数ECEmed分别为26.3、4.1和24.3 kgCO2e·m-2图10、附录A中的表S7)。与B1‒B5阶段类似,不同案例的计算结果存在大幅差异。在Wu等[13]、Li等[42]、Cuéllar-Franca和Azapagic [138]的案例研究中,分别显示ECEC1‒C4贡献了建筑LCCE的13.67%、1%和1%。Li等[31]、Moncaster和Symons [139]的研究则分别显示ECEC1‒C4贡献了建筑总ECE的3%~21%和21%。

4.3.2 建筑运行碳排放(B6‒B7)

(1)计算方法。建筑运行碳排放(OCE)由运行能耗和水耗两个项目构成,但仅有Li等[29]、Kofoworola和Gheewala [88]、Passer等[97]、Junnila和Horvath [99]、Pons和Wadel [122]、Petrovic等[129]、Cuéllar-Franca和Azapagic [138]、Quintana-Gallardo等[151]、Scheuer等[157]的9项研究明确计入了水的消耗。大部分研究仅考虑能源消耗,统计方式包含两类,一类按能源消耗的项目区分,如暖通空调(HVAC)、热水、照明、电器、烹饪等;另一类按消耗的能源类别区分,如电力、天然气、油等。能耗数据的获取主要依靠计算机模拟和运行能耗监测两种方式,但仅少数研究采用实际能耗数据[53,57,95](附录A中的表S8)。

(2)计算结果和影响。综述的案例研究共提供143组B6‒B7阶段的碳排放计算结果,总体上,OCEmed (OCE25%~OCE75%)为1515.0 (540.0~2260.5) kgCO2e·m-2,该值在建筑LCCE中占比75.2% (59.9%~86.3%)(图4图5)。建筑运行碳排放与建筑功能相关,综述的案例研究共提供380组OCE计算结果,其中居住建筑215组,非居住建筑包含商业、办公、酒店、教育建筑,共138组,混合功能7组,其余20组未明确功能类型。其OCE计算结果如图11和附录A中的表S9所示,统计结果显示,居住建筑组OCEmed (OCE25%~OCE75%)为21.8 (9.0~38.8) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1,明显小于非居住建筑组的85.1 (22.1~198.7) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1

OCE存在地域差别,按柯本气候分区方法[198],将研究案例分为热带、干燥、暖温带和寒带4组气候区。其中热带和干燥气候区的OCE数据相对较少(分别有33例和8例),而暖温带和寒带分别有208例和80例。从统计结果中位数看,热带气候区下的33个案例均来自亚洲低纬度地区,其OCEmed高达214.9 kgCO2e·m-2·a-1,大幅高于其他三个组气候区案例的8.1‒32.2 kgCO2e·m-2·a-1。此外,在不同国家/地区之间,OCE也表现出差异(图11、附录A的表S10)。中国居住建筑OCEmed(OCE25%~OCE75%)为23.8 (21.7~30.7) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1,该值低于亚洲其他国家的41.9 (36.2~52.5) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1,而这两者又明显高于欧洲组的16.7(7.3~33.8) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1。非居住建筑组表现出类似的特征。

不同类型建筑运行碳排放的构成存在差异。Kofoworola和Gheewala [192]、Adalberth [199]、Buyle等[200]对标准建筑的研究表明,运行阶段的环境影响占比60%~90%,主要来自于碳排放贡献的GWP值。Cuéllar-Franca和Azapagic [138]、Radhi和Sharples [201]、You等[202]对英国和中国居住建筑的研究表明,OCE贡献了建筑LCCE的80%~90%。供暖、制冷和照明是OCE的主要来源,根据Jing等[53]、Zabalza Bribián等[119]、van Ooteghem和Xu [153]、Scheuer等[157]案例研究,这些项目共贡献了总OCE的82%、92.7%、88.2%和93.4%。此外,大多数研究中对水耗的忽视可能会导致对OCE一定程度的低估,例如,Petrovic等[129]研究瑞典一栋木结构独立式住宅,表明在100年寿命期内建筑运行水耗的碳排放占总OCE的6%。

4.3.3 补充效益(D)

(1)计算方法。D模块包含建材回收和再利用以及能源回收带来的碳折减效益,由于这部分内容不被归入A、B、C阶段,因此被定义为“系统边界之外的补充效益”。在本文统计的161项研究中,有28项(17.4%)考虑了D模块的碳排放,其中22项(13.7%)结合案例进行计算,另外6项引用经验数据。该部分的计算均是基于场景假设。

(2)计算结果和影响。由于D模块均为碳减排效益,这部分研究现状详见5.2.5节的分析。综述的案例研究共提供58组D模块的碳排放计算结果,总体上,CEmed (CE25%~CE75%)为-188.6 (-219.0~-115.5) kgCO2e·m-2,该值在建筑LCCE中占比-4.1% (-10.8%~-1.2%)(图4图5)。对于混凝土、钢和木结构案例,CED中位数分别为-201.7、-139.4、-208.0 kgCO2e·m-2。由于采集到的钢结构案例数据仅有4组,统计结果可能存在代表性局限(图12、附录A中的表S11)。

4.4 碳排放因子(EF)

4.4.1 能源(EFe

(1)一次能源。化石能源的碳排放因子一般是通过燃料含碳率和燃烧过程中碳氧化率计算所得。根据Chau等[5]的研究,汽油、柴油、煤油、煤炭、天然气的碳排放因子分别为0.249~0.252、0.248~0.340、0.248~0.259、0.341~0.486和0.18~0.231 kgCO2e·(kW·h)-1。本文综述的案例研究中,大多数并未提供一次能源的基础参数。对获得的15项汽油、20项柴油和22项天然气的碳排放因子数据进行单位统一,所得碳排放因子参数分别在0.231~0.343、0.163~0.347和0.179~0.275 kgCO2e·(kW·h)-1的范围内,该区间与Chau等[6]提供的参数范围接近(图13)。

(2)电力。电力碳排放因子与发电消耗的能源结构相关,受时间和地域影响且动态变化。在案例研究中提取出100项电力碳排放因子参数,其值在0.006~1.127 kgCO2e·(kW·h)-1之间,最低值和最高值分别来自瑞典和澳大利亚。从地区看,澳大利亚的4组参数平均值最高,达到0.871 kgCO2e·(kW·h)-1。其次为中国的57组参数,平均值为0.783 kgCO2e·(kW·h)-1。亚洲其他国家的15组参数平均值为0.600 kgCO2e·(kW·h)-1。欧洲电力碳排放因子明显更低,23组参数平均值为0.329 kgCO2e·(kW·h)-1。采用不同的电力碳排放因子参数,可导致截然不同的计算结果并影响相关决策(图14)。

4.4.2 建筑材料(EFm

(1)水泥。在综述的案例研究中共采集到69组水泥碳排放因子参数,其值在0.320~1.350 kgCO2e·kg-1的范围内,其中45项(65.2%)参数集中在0.6~1.0 kgCO2e·kg-1的区间。从地域分布上,中国的45组参数平均值为0.904 kgCO2e·kg-1,高于澳大利亚、欧洲和亚洲其他国家的相应平均值0.881、0.774和0.502 kgCO2e·kg-1图15)。煅烧石灰石产生CO2直接排放是水泥产品生产的主要碳排放源。Feiz等[203]研究德国的水泥生产,结果表明煅烧石灰石产生碳排放在所有生产工序中最大,高达0.541 kgCO2·kg-1,贡献了水泥ECEA1‒A3的64%。

与石灰石煅烧过程相反的是水泥使用期间和使用后的碳化反应,这一过程会重新将部分CO2吸收到水泥或混凝土基体中封存起来。已有研究[204206]认为,忽略这一过程会导致水泥碳排放强度的明显高估,但对该过程的量化评估存在大幅偏差。Xi等[205]估计在1930‒2013年间,全球水泥因碳化过程导致的碳吸收相当于生产过程碳排放的43%。Dodoo等[206]计算一个混凝土框架房屋的碳排放,结果表明水泥煅烧过程产生的碳排放为23 tC,占建筑ECE的16%,100年使用期间和使用后因为碳化反应吸收的碳分别为5.4和4.7 tC。然而,Lee等[207]认为使用阶段混凝土通过碳化反应导致的CO2吸收量不超过其生产阶段CO2排放量的5%。

(2)混凝土。综述的案例研究中共采集到279组混凝土碳排放因子参数,其中157项未明确混凝土成分和强度信息,32项明确了在普通波特兰水泥(OPC)基础上添加了辅助胶凝材料(SCM),其余90项明确了混凝土强度等级。第一组的157项参数的平均值是0.144 kgCO2e·kg-1,最低值和最高值分别为美国的0.05 kgCO2e·kg-1和中国的0.485 kgCO2e·kg-1。第二组32项OPC+SCM混凝土碳排放因子的平均值为0.105 kgCO2e·kg-1,相比第一组有27%的降幅。第三组不同强度等级混凝土的参数,清晰地显示出混凝土碳排放因子与其强度等级之间存在正相关关系(图16)。

(3)钢材。在综述的案例研究中共采集到172组钢材碳排放因子参数,其中119项(69.2%)未明示具体钢材类型和回收比例等信息,其值在0.341~6.100 kgCO2e·kg-1之间,最大值和最小值存在17.9的倍数差,分别出现在亚洲国家塞浦路斯Kyriakidis等[208]和韩国Choi等[209]的案例研究中。从参数分布直方图中可见,其取值主要分布在低于4 kgCO2e·kg-1的范围内,且其中小于3 kgCO2e·kg-1的数据共110个,占总量的92.4%。另外有19项注明为原生钢材、34项注明为回收钢材,两组钢材碳排放因子平均值分别为2.565和1.336 kgCO2e·kg-1图17)。根据世界钢铁协会经验,生产钢材时每增加1 kg回收废钢作为原料,所得钢材产品的碳排放可降低1 kgCO2e·kg-1 [210]。

(4)木材。在综述的案例研究中共采集到78组木材碳排放因子参数。木材产品碳排放因子受原材料和加工方式影响,不同产品种类之间可存在明显差异,但案例中有37项(47.4%)未明确具体木材类型,其余41项包含硬木、软木、胶合木、交叉层压木材(CLT)、定向结构刨花板(OSB)、原竹及胶合竹的7种类型。量值分布在从-1.665 kgCO2e·kg-1至2.570 kgCO2e·kg-1的范围内,平均值为0.404 kgCO2e·kg-1图18)。有研究认为木材原材料中的碳储存和使用后的处理方式,对其碳流的影响可大于加工过程产生的碳排放,使得产品生命周期碳足迹为负值[23,123,152]。但也有研究认为木材光合作用吸收的二氧化碳最终通过燃烧或自然氧化重新释放回大气,因此这个过程被视为发生中和而不予计算[26]。是否考虑这部分碳流会显著影响产品碳排放计算结果。

(5)铝材。在综述的案例研究中共采集到36组铝材碳排放因子参数,其中仅3组明确是原生铝材,3组明确是回收铝材。剩余30组未明确相关信息。36组铝材碳排放因子分布情况如图19所示,其值在0.666~29.85 kgCO2e·kg-1之间,平均值为10.686 kgCO2e·kg-1,最大值和最小值存在44.8的倍数差,且均出现在中国[47,173]。铝材碳排放因子受回收情况影响,在Yan等[47]的案例中,原生和回收铝材的碳排放因子分别取值为8.566 kgCO2e·kg-1和0.666 kgCO2e·kg-1Purnell [211]的研究中,对两者分别取值为11.5 kgCO2e·kg-1和1.7 kgCO2e·kg-1

(6)玻璃。在综述的案例研究中共采集到36组玻璃碳排放因子参数,其值在0.55~2.82 kgCO2e·kg-1之间,分布情况如图20所示。平均值为1.267 kgCO2e·kg-1,最大值和最小值存在5.1的倍数差,分别出现在中国和澳大利亚[173]。大多数研究并未给出玻璃的具体信息,但即使是同类玻璃,不同案例的取值也存在差异,例如,对于中国的浮法玻璃,Gong等[26]和Yan等[47]分别取值2.588 kgCO2e·kg-1和1.858 kgCO2e·kg-1

4.5 对LCCE计算影响因素的讨论

4.5.1 碳排放计算方法的影响

Moncaster等[145]、Saade等[212]通过对比研究表明,所考虑的生命周期阶段、物质边界和基础参数的不同是导致碳排放计算差异的主要原因。Pomponi和Moncaster [213]的综述认为不同案例研究中采用的方法存在很大不同,造成结果差异可达两个数量级,使得不同案例的计算结果无法进行比较。Piccardo和Gustavsson [131]研究不同建模方式对建筑碳排放分析的影响,表明考虑材料热值、生物碳、煅烧和碳化过程、电力生产情景、多功能流程的影响分布、使用后处置的6个建模选择会影响建筑LCA,这对于使用了木材和水泥的建筑尤为明显。

建筑全生命周期碳排放计算结果很大程度上取决于对生命周期建模时的选择和场景的构建,与一般产品不同,建筑物是一复杂系统,并且(根据一般假设)拥有数十年的使用期限,因而在将LCA基本原理应用到建筑碳排放计算时,往往需要嵌入更多、更深入的数学模型以解决相应阶段的关键问题,这一过程容易导致计算失去准确性,使得结果难以预测,并且可能对同一问题得出截然相反的结果,阻碍了有利于低碳决策结论的得出。

4.5.2 碳排放基础参数的影响

Hossain和Ng [214]比较不同来源参数对碳排放计算结果的影响,表明即便采用相同的系统边界和材料,评估结果仍存在偏差,由于基础参数取值差异给ECE计算结果可造成284%~1044%的变化[213]。Ortiz-Rodríguez等[164]在西班牙的计算案例中,表明选择GaBi和Ecoinvent数据库的不同参数用于计算时,所得OCE占建筑LCCE的比重在84%~89%之间,而维护阶段碳排放比重则在2%~6%的范围变化。一项基于35个既有研究的统计分析表明,上游数据库的选择可导致评价结果出现明显差异,对于香港的案例,不同数据库的选择可导致22%的计算结果差异[215]。

此外,碳排放计算过程复杂,因而难以追踪和复现。如4.4.2节所述,现有案例中对碳排放因子取值存在大幅差异,与此同时,大部分研究对混凝土、钢材、木材均未辨析其材料品种、含量、回收成分、强度及其他相关信息,数据缺乏透明性和可靠性说明。作者认为在未来研究中应建立适应当地条件的基础数据库并优先用于评估,提高建筑碳排放计算基础参数取值的透明性,考虑由专业机构执行,进行数据质量辨析,并明确所得结果的可靠性。

5 建筑LCCE的减量

5.1 建筑碳排放热点分布与减碳原理

5.1.1 建筑碳排放的分布

ECE和OCE在建筑LCCE中的比重取决于多方面因素,如建筑功能、使用的材料、建筑围护结构性能、建筑能效水平、建筑寿命等。Ibn-Mohammed等[216]通过综述分析表明ECE在建筑LCCE中的比重为2%~80%。Mao等[217]、Ramesh等[218]、Harris [219]、Cole和Wong [220]针对建筑寿命为50~60年的传统居住建筑的研究表明,ECE贡献了LCCE的11%~40%,而对于建筑寿命为50~60年的传统非居住建筑,相关研究得出该比重为10%~27% [18,217,221]。这一比重受能源碳排放强度的显著影响,可导致相应建筑碳减排重点的改变,例如,Robati等[169]研究澳大利亚一栋高层建筑,表明当采用不同电力碳排放因子时,建筑ECE占LCCE的比重最低为27%,最高达58%。

对于低能耗建筑,ECE的比重会有明显提高并且可超过OCE [15,105]。Chastas等[222]分析95个居住建筑案例,表明对于传统建筑、被动房、低能耗建筑和净零能耗建筑,ECE在LCCE中的比重分别为9%~22%、32%~38%、21%~57%和71%。Röck等[223]基于全球238个建筑LCA案例样本的分析表明,依据现有能效法规设计的建筑的ECE平均约占其LCCE的20%~25%,对于高能效建筑该比重提高至45%~50%,在极端情况下可超过90%。Kristjansdottir等[106]研究挪威奥斯陆气候条件下8个独立式住宅案例,包含一个主动式建筑、两个被动房、4个净零能耗建筑和一个根据挪威建筑规范设计的基准建筑,结果表明ECE贡献了LCCE的60%~75%。在一座澳大利亚的绿色建筑案例中,由于运行阶段实现净零排放,ECE的贡献被认为达到100% [173]。

本文综述的案例共提供309组ECE、OCE和LCCE的计算结果,其中43组在文献中明确了满足低能耗建筑、绿色建筑、净零能耗建筑、主动房或被动房的相关认证要求。在以下分析中,这43组数据被归为认证组(C组),其余266组被归为非认证组(NC组)。考虑到建筑使用寿命的影响,FU统一为“单位建筑面积×每年”。

认证组建筑LCCEmed (LCCE25%~LCCE75%)为10.00 (6.76~ 26.57) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1,显著低于非认证组的32.17 (22.04~ 55.08) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1。对于隐含碳排放,认证组和非认证组的ECEmed (ECE25%~ECE75%)分别为4.50 (3.40~13.80) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1和8.16 (4.19~12.01) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1。可见,即便具有更高的建筑围护结构性能,认证组ECE仍低于非认证组,原因之一在于认证组中有20项(46.5%)是木结构,而非认证组中木结构比例较低,仅有43项(16.2%)。对于运行碳排放,两组OCEmed (OCE25%~OCE75%)分别为6.30 (3.95~11.95) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1和24.35 (14.33~41.81) kgCO2e·m-2·a-1,总体上,认证组大幅低于非认证组。对于ECE和OCE在LCCE中的比例关系,认证组ECE在LCCE中的比重P med (P 25%~P 75%)为47.4% (29.4%~59.2%),明显高于非认证组的24.3% (14.1%~36.0%)(附录A中的图S3、图S4)。

5.1.2 建筑碳减排的原理

基于第3、4节对建筑LCCE内涵和计算方法的分析,建筑LCCE可按如下公式表达:

L C C E = 1 i A D m . i × E F m . i + 1 i A D e . i × E F e . i - C E D - C E e

式中,ADm. i 为第i种建筑材料的活动数据,单元;EFm. i 为第i种建筑材料的碳排放因子,kgCO2e·单元-1;ADe. i 为第i种运行能源的活动数据,单元;EFe. i 为第i种运行能源的碳排放因子,kgCO2e·单元-1;CED为补充效益(D模块)的碳减排量,kgCO2e;CEe为其他技术的碳减排量,kgCO2e。

以下分析中,将相关建筑碳减排技术归为减少建材和运行能源活动数据(ADm、ADe)、降低建材和能源碳排放因子(EFm、EFe)、利用系统附加效益(CED)和其他(CEe)的几个方面,进行技术要点和减碳效益的分析。

5.2 建筑碳减排技术要点与效益

5.2.1 减少建材活动数据(ADm

减少ADm的途径包括优化建筑结构选型和尺寸,使用强度更高、替换频率更低、预期寿命更长的建筑材料,以及应用工业化建筑体系和精益建造技术。

减少混凝土和钢材的使用可显著降低传统钢筋混凝土结构建筑的碳排放。在针对高层钢筋混凝土结构建筑的研究中,Gan等[46]、Teng和Pan [54]、Choi等[62]优化结构选型和构件尺寸,使ECE降低13.5%~31.6%。Gan等[49]、Tae等[68]、Choi等[209]对比采用不同强度等级材料的结构方案,表明提高钢筋和混凝土的强度可降低11.0%~16.7%的ECE。Mequignon等[224]评估建筑使用寿命对其碳排放的影响,表明使用寿命与技术方案同等重要。Heravi等[77]研究伊朗一座居住建筑,表明采用精益技术生产和建造预制钢结构框架建筑可减少4.4%的ECE。Robati等[169]研究澳大利亚一栋高层建筑,表明采用后张法混凝土结构系统可降低8%的ECE。

预制混凝土相比于现浇方案的优势体现在节约原材料、减少建造垃圾运输和施工过程能源及资源消耗。在材料层面,Dong和Ng [50]、Dong等[51]研究表明单位体积预制混凝土的碳排放比现浇混凝土低10%。在构件层面,Ding等[37]、Wan Omar等[86]、Li等[225]研究表明预制混凝土构件的碳排放比现浇混凝土构件低19.0%~26.3%。在建筑系统层面,预制混凝土碳减排的效果受诸多因素影响,如预制率,普遍认为其碳减排效果随预制率提高而加强。然而,关于预制的碳减排效果也存在不同的观点[72]。Teng等[226]分析27个预制建筑项目,表明相比于传统方案,仍有3个案例增加了ECE,5个案例提高了OCE,进一步分析表明,如果使用的材料不能得到再利用,预制建筑反而会增加ECE。此外,混凝土预制所造成运输碳排放的增加可能会将其碳排放优势弱化至1.5%~3.2% [19,52,227]。

5.2.2 降低建材碳排放因子(EFm

减少EFm的途径包括两种,一种是选用碳排放因子低的既有产品,另一种是对A1‒A3的建材生产阶段进行优化,降低建材生产碳排放。

(1)低碳建材的使用。由于在建筑领域应用广泛,混凝土、钢和木材的低碳性能被讨论得最多。在所有研究中,木结构均表现出幅度为13.0%~96.5%的低碳优势[23,26,60,82,87,117,124,128,140,145,150,169170,228233]。但木材的碳减排效益须基于适当的森林管理、生产方法、运输距离和胶黏剂的选用等多方面前提[152,195,228230]。在瑞典[130]、美国[160]和澳大利亚[167]的案例研究显示,木结构比钢筋混凝土结构碳排放低26.5%~34%。而混凝土和钢结构之间的比较存在截然不同的结论。Su等[12]、Gong等[26]、Vitale等[114]、Jönsson等[134]研究表明钢结构建筑ECE比钢筋混凝土结构低10.4%~48.1%。但另一些研究[7374,76,85,161,168,234]显示钢结构建筑ECE比钢筋混凝土结构高12.7%~54%。

此外,基于竹子、秸秆等快速生长的植物开发的建筑材料、以及土坯等传统建筑材料的低碳潜力正得到越来越多的关注[235236]。Pittau等[237238]通过对比研究表明,木材生长周期相对较长,而快速生长的植物在相同周期内可储存更多的碳,因而具有更大的碳汇潜力。在中国、伊朗、巴尔干半岛和安第斯巴塔哥尼亚地区应用竹材[24]和秸秆草砖[23,75,98,162]的案例研究中验证了类似的碳减排效益。在印度、斯里兰卡、巴勒斯坦和伊朗的案例研究表明,相比于现代建筑系统和材料,使用传统技术和材料,包括土坯和粉煤灰砌块[239240]、石灰石和石灰砂浆[80,79],同样显现出碳减排效益。

(2)建材生产的碳减排。建材生产碳减排措施包括高碳原材料的替代、生产工艺的优化、过程碳排放的利用等。Rai等[141]评估主要建筑材料的碳减排潜力,表明当50%的水泥原料采用磨碎粒状高炉矿渣(GGBS)时,可将混凝土ECEA1‒A3降低34.7%~45.9%,而当采用二次钢材时,可降低75.7%的钢材碳排放。Turner和Collins [241]开发一种由地质聚合物组成的混凝土,相比于传统波特兰水泥混凝土,可降低9%的ECEA1‒A3。Xu等[190]通过生产优化,将竹组件的ECEA1‒A3平均值降低15.7%。在中国,发展基于废钢的电弧炉炼钢工艺被视为钢结构构件生产的主要低碳措施之一[242]。

由于建材碳排放是建筑ECE的主要部分,建材生产的碳减排对降低建筑ECE至关重要。在香港钢筋混凝土结构高层建筑的研究中,Gan等[49]表明使用辅助胶凝材料(35%的粉煤灰或75%的磨细高炉矿渣)、100%的回收废钢、生态水泥、40 mm骨料等措施可减少9%~39%的建筑ECE。类似地,Teng和Pan [52]研究香港钢筋混凝土结构高层住宅,表明当使用高炉渣代替部分波特兰水泥时可减少22.8%的ECE,而使用水泥替代品(25%的过氟烷基化物)可降低9.8%的ECE。Purnell和Black [243]表明使用粉煤灰和磨细高炉矿渣可将普通硅酸盐水泥的ECEA1‒A3降低20%~30%。Iddon和Firth [143]评估英国4种典型的建造方案,表明使用含有30%的过氟烷基化物的混凝土,可使新建住房的ECE降低24%。

5.2.3 减少运行能源活动数据(ADe

运行期间能源消耗是建筑LCCE的重要组成部分,已有的建筑节能技术,无论是被动式节能措施,还是主动式系统优化,均对降低建筑能源消耗和相应LCCE有直接作用[127,133,244]。Kneifel [245246]在228个城市对12个原型建筑开展多组组合模拟,表明应用传统节能技术可减少9%~33%的OCE。在中国[17,173]、法国[102103,247]、爱尔兰[108]、意大利[112]、瑞士[135]、美国[159]和澳大利亚[173]的研究中,均认为低能耗建筑、绿色建筑和被动房在建筑的整个生命周期中具有减碳效益。Korsavi等[147]在英国一座校园建筑研究中,表明使用光伏系统可降低30%的OCE。Atmaca等[96]评估土耳其的一个历史建筑改造项目,表明使用高效暖通空调系统可将LCCE降低43%。Legorburu和Smith [248]提出一种离散多目标优化框架,用于确定每栋校园建筑的最佳暖通空调系统,凭借该系统可降低15%的LCCE。

围护结构与建筑运行能耗相关,是影响建筑OCE的重要因素,Li等[249]评估相变材料墙体对中国东北农村典型房屋碳排放的影响,表明合理的相变材料墙体设置可减少高达52.7 kgCO2·m-2·a-1的LCCE。Hacker等[146]研究英国一栋低层住宅100年计算周期内的LCCE,表明应用重质建筑围护结构,相比于轻质结构,最高可降低7%的LCCE。另一项针对土耳其两栋住宅的研究,表明外墙设置80 mm保温层,可减少23.4%的LCCE [94]。Karami等[126]研究表明在欧洲住宅中应用真空保温技术可降低供暖引起的OCE。Pomponi等[250]对比分析128个双层表皮立面配置,表明85%的情况下双层表皮立面比单层立面更低碳。在提供了OCE计算结果的案例中,上述技术可实现OCE减排10% [233]~72% [251]。

5.2.4 降低运行能源碳排放因子(EFe

在消耗相同能源的情况下,决定OCE的是能源碳排放因子,这取决于相应的能源结构。Mosteiro-Romero等[172]对比美国和瑞士两栋独立式住宅,表明瑞士案例消耗的能源主要来自水电和核能,OCE仅为每平方米供暖面积279 kgCO2e,远低于美国的每平方米供暖面积2147 kgCO2e。Ortiz等[163]对比西班牙和哥伦比亚的两栋低层住宅,结果表明由于电网碳排放因子低,哥伦比亚案例的OCE明显更低;进一步比较了纯电力和电力+天然气组合两种能源方案,结果表明适当的能源组合可降低OCE,在西班牙和哥伦比亚两个案例中OCE的降低幅度分别为25%和9%。用低碳电力替代高碳电力可以将OCE降低9%~67% [135,163164]。

在寒冷气候区,建筑OCE主要源于供热系统,一般地,生物质供热系统碳排放最低,电阻加热系统碳排放最高,基于生物质的区域供热系统可实现OCE降低高达90% [123124]。Braslavsky等[251]基于澳大利亚一个大型零售购物中心分析,表明仅对冷热电联产技术(CCHP)进行适度投资即可降低29.6%的碳排放,而加强CCHP技术结合现场太阳能发电可减少近72%的OCE。在瑞典Växjö的一个木结构建筑案例中,显示区域供热结合生物质综合气化联合循环系统(BIGCC)或热泵结合BIGCC,可实现建材生产和建筑总LCCE为负值[124]。Zhang和Wang [22]研究中国寒冷地区一栋高层住宅,表明当使用燃煤锅炉、燃油锅炉、燃气锅炉和太阳能辅助热泵时,OCE依次降低。

5.2.5 利用补充效益(CED

CED包含建材回收再利用和能源回收带来的碳减排效益。例如,Blengini [113]对意大利一栋混凝土结构低层住宅的研究表明,建筑拆除后进行材料回收,相比于进行垃圾填埋,有潜力降低18%的ECE。Coelho和de Brito [118]评估5种建筑废弃物处置方式,表明核心材料的分离及其回收和再利用,可降低建筑拆除阶段77%的碳排放。Ghose等[252]研究新西兰的建筑翻新,表明提高建筑垃圾现场回收和再利用率可将建筑翻新的碳排放降低5%~15%。Wang等[38]研究表明现场回收比工厂回收或垃圾填埋具有更好的碳减排效益。然而,Wang等[253]对中国9个城市的调研表明,95%的装饰装修垃圾被以填埋的方式处理。

对于木结构建筑,CED的影响尤其突出[254]。Gustavsson等[123]对瑞典一栋多层木结构公寓的研究表明,在建造阶段,利用木材加工过程产生的生物质残余物产出的能源可多于建筑建造消耗的能源,这一效益使得建筑在建材生产阶段的碳排放为负值[124]。在建筑报废阶段,回收拆除的木构件用作生物燃料并替代化石燃料使用,可进一步显著减少净碳排放[123,167]。Dodoo等[206]研究表明,采用拆除的木材替代化石燃料的碳折减效益明显高于回收混凝土或钢材的相应效益。然而,该碳减排效益主要取决于上游森林管理、木材生产、建造及拆除后木材的处理方式[132,228]。Sathre和O’Conno [255]、Churkina等[256]明确了木材替代的碳减排效益的作用范围,并强调森林的可持续管理和木材残余物的合理使用是前提条件。

5.2.6 其他碳减排措施(CEe

以下措施针对的碳排放不由建筑材料及能源的生产和使用产生,因而通常没有被计入建筑碳排放的范畴,但有潜力共同促进更加广义的建筑碳排放的减量。

(1)绿植碳汇。Besir和Cuce [257]通过综述,表明屋顶绿化具有碳吸收和碳储存功能,垂直绿化系统年碳累积量为13.41~97.03 kgC·m-2。关于碳成本,Seyedabadi等[258]研究表明采用绿色屋顶代替传统屋顶的施工过程产生碳排放4.6 kgCO2·m-2。绿墙和绿地系统也被认为具有类似的碳减排性能[259260]。

(2)人员活动碳排放的控制。人员日常活动造成的GHG排放可通过对日常行为的适当管理加以削减。Cheung和Fan [189]调研香港一座酒店,表明通过采取包含照明、空调节能和废弃物回收在内的一系列碳减排策略,多年累计减少碳排放约1900 tCO2,这些策略中效益最显著的是食物垃圾回收,每年减少碳排放约500~700 tCO2e。

(3)CO2捕获和封存的技术。对于水泥和陶瓷等在生产过程中产生CO2直接排放的行业,CO2捕集、利用和封存被认为是实现深度脱碳的唯一具有成本效益的选项[261]。利用碳化作用加速CO2吸收可降低水泥和混凝土的碳排放[205,262]。例如,Qian等[263]研究通过碳捕获细菌增加水泥基材料、钢渣和废弃混凝土对CO2的吸附并转化为碳酸盐。

(4)非CO2温室气体的处置。如3.2.1节所述,非CO2类GHG的GWP值通常是CO2的数十至数万倍,其中含氟制冷剂泄漏可导致相当大的碳排放。除等待无氟制冷技术的成熟以外,目前可进行回收或通过燃烧等方式将相关氟化物转为GWP为1的CO2 [177],这有潜力大幅减少相应温室效应。

5.3 建筑ECE和OCE综合减排的讨论

5.3.1 建筑ECE与OCE减排的平衡

许多建筑减碳技术会导致ECE的增加,但可在建筑使用期间减少OCE,并最终实现总LCCE的减量。Blengini和Di Carlo [111]对比意大利按低能耗建筑和标准建筑两种模式设计的独立式住宅,结果表明低能耗建筑的ECE提高12.5%,OCE降低71.7%,在70年周期内,低能耗建筑碳排放总量为标准建筑的46.1%。Yang等[28]研究中国7个木结构示范建筑的碳排放,表明提高建筑围护结构性能,建筑ECE增加28.5%,但OCE降低39.3%,最终可减少32.7%的LCCE。

但需要说明的是,并非所有OCE的降低都需要以ECE的增加作为前提。Azzouz等研究英国一栋办公建筑,与原始方案相比,采用自然通风、扩大恒温器设置、采用CCHP和光伏发电系统、通过重新设计减轻10%的钢筋混凝土结构、使用30%粉煤灰和再生砖、采用软木板保温和木材内饰面,共同形成的策略累计最多可降低16%的LCCE,其中ECE降低32%,而OCE减少14% [144]。Piccardo等研究瑞典一栋低层公寓,结果表明根据被动房标准改造,OCE可降低50%~82%,优化后的材料选择,特别是更多使用木质材料时,可减少68%的ECE [264]。

5.3.2 碳投资回报期

通常采用碳投资回报期表征通过OCE的减少来抵消ECE的增加所需要的时间。Opher等研究加拿大一栋建筑修复项目,表明改造增加的ECE预计可在3~13年内通过运行节能得以平衡[155]。碳投资回报期也被用于评估欧洲预制混凝土构件应用[265]以及加拿大多单元住宅和办公楼节能改造的减碳绩效评估,以支持相应的低碳决策[266267]。

然而,容易被忽略的一点是,上述ECE在建筑投入使用前已经排放完,而通过OCE抵消的方式实现碳平衡需要在建筑运行期间花费数年甚至数十年的时间。几乎在所有案例中,都采用了当前静态的能源碳排放因子计算未来的OCE。但考虑到未来能源尤其是电力的碳排放因子逐年下降,通过相同节能降低的相应OCE也会逐年减少,这可能会延长碳投资回报期,甚至导致最终无法实现碳平衡。

6 研究局限与建议

6.1 局限与挑战

通过对建筑全生命周期碳排放(LCCE)内涵、计算和减排技术研究现状的分析,认为尚存在以下问题和挑战:

(1)LCCE相关研究目标和思路不匹配。根据IPCC宏观层面碳排放统计方法,建筑直接和间接碳排放被归入建筑部门,建材生产碳排放被归入工业部门。这种分类容易导致对建筑碳排放来源把握不准,并可能阻碍真正有效碳减排技术的实施,因为实现建筑全生命周期碳减排,需要基于建材工业和建筑部门的协同。因此,建筑LCCE的计算方法和减量责任划分不应以IPCC规定的方法为基础。

(2)建筑ECE计算需要详细的数据清单,过程烦琐,工作量大。现行方法针对生产和使用阶段的建材碳排放计算,需要通过查询设计图纸、采购清单、工程预算等技术资料获取各类建材消耗量,而建造和拆除阶段则要求有各分项工程和措施所需的各类机械台班用量、各种现场制作的材料与构件数量等详细数据。然而,实际工程中使用的建筑材料、施工和拆除过程用能设施复杂多样,要准确查找和计量这些数据非常困难。

(3)综述的研究中各案例碳排放计算结果存在显著差异,因此很难就典型建筑的碳排放强度和碳减排目标达成共识。由于各研究系统边界的设定不一,不同来源案例计算结果难以进行严格的汇总和比较。各研究所采用的一次能源取值范围较为接近,而电力碳排放因子则大幅不同,水泥、混凝土、钢材、木材碳排放因子存在数量级差异。此外,多数研究中碳排放因子基础参数信息不明,存在数据质量和透明性问题。

(4)亚洲特别是中国,尚未完善可支持建筑ECE计算的本地建材基础数据库。中国尚未建立可靠的建材基础参数库,许多案例研究引用欧洲和北美洲的数据库,难以契合实际。依赖不可靠的基础数据进行的计算,可能产生误导性结论,并阻碍真正低碳方案的发掘。而建立建材数据库存在困难,客观上仅凭单个环节、单个企业的数据计量无法实现[268],因为建材从原材料开采、生产到加工出厂等各环节往往由多个不同企业共同完成。

(5)作为基础参数的电力碳排放因子变化趋势及其对建筑LCCE的影响尚缺乏考量。几乎所有的案例都采用现有的能源碳排放因子去计算未来的建筑OCE。仅个别案例研究[242,269]中考虑了建筑生命周期内电力系统由于逐渐脱碳导致的碳排放因子的降低。电力碳排放因子随时间变化,未考虑未来电力系统变化趋势,无法进行准确的碳排放计算和碳减排技术效益评估。

(6)多数建筑仍以“全空间×全时间”的模式运行,而“局部空间×部分时间”的OCE减量潜力尚未得到充分发掘。OCE可按如下计算公式表达:[(能源需求强度×面积×时间)/能源效率]×能源碳排放因子。由于乘法效应,压缩能源需求的实际时间和空间可具有放大的减碳效果,但当前“局部空间×部分时间”在减少OCE方面的潜力尚未得到充分发掘。在极端情况下,对整个建筑空间进行全时段、恒温恒湿的控制要求会导致OCE不必要地增大。

(7)建筑低碳技术效益和成本存在不确定性,给制定建筑碳减排路径带来挑战。气候变化等外因会导致建筑运行碳排放来源发生变化,从而改变建筑减碳的重点[136]。各地原材料、能源、资源禀赋和技术条件不同,使得异地借鉴低碳技术存在适宜性问题。而当能源、材料基础参数改变时,会导致相应的碳减排技术成本和效益发生变化。这些不确定性因素都给制定碳减排路径带来挑战。

(8)建筑使用、报废、回收再利用阶段缺乏基础性研究,存在技术空白。如3.1.2节所梳理的,本文综述的研究中,仅26.7%、32.9%、13.7%的进行了B、C、D阶段的计算,真正完整地进行建筑LCCE研究的案例仍为少数。缺乏建材预期使用寿命研究,无法计算和评估使用阶段的“复发隐含碳排放”;缺少使用期间及使用后建筑废弃物的低碳处置与回收再利用技术的基础性研究,导致仅能进行垃圾填埋,无法发挥利用补充效益减少LCCE的潜力。

6.2 发展建议

针对以上研究问题和挑战,建议开展以下行业标准、计算方法、基础参数和减碳路径的工作建议:

(1)基于建筑全生命周期碳减排效果,协同建材与建筑标准,促进建材与建筑领域的行业合作。统筹开展相关标准修编或局部修编,实现建材与建筑领域碳排放计算方法和指标要求的协调统一。在协同标准的基础上,分步、分阶段强制要求建材和建筑企业开展全过程碳排放核算。在大量碳排放核算实践并建立碳排放数据库的基础上,划定建材和建筑行业的碳排放基线和标识评估标准。

(2)基于以上建材与建筑协同标准,整合建材与建筑碳排放计算边界和方法,提高数据透明性和计算的可复现性。由于涉及的影响因素较多,很难避免各建筑案例之间存在的数值差异,因此要求采用统一的计算方法、报告制定和交流规则更为现实。这要求相关计算结果报告的信息具有透明度,包括LCCE系统边界(表3)、计算步骤和使用的基础参数的透明度,以避免对结果造成误读。

(3)调研不同地区典型建材产品全过程碳排放边界,建立典型建材产品EFm基础数据库。由建材生产龙头企业牵头,研究建材产品碳排放系统边界,规范原材料采购、生产加工、出厂运输等环节的数据采集方法,建立典型建材产品全过程碳排放清单,编制技术导则并在全行业推广。设计和实施EFm产品标识方法,确保各环节碳排放数据可查询、可追溯和可更新。

(4)推动建筑全过程精细化和信息化管理,建立基于工序的建筑建造与拆除碳排放基础数据库。由建筑建造和拆除龙头企业牵头,全面梳理典型结构建筑的典型建造和拆除工序,明确各工序的碳排放源和边界,规范数据采集方法,建立碳排放清单编制技术导则。通过标准、政策引导、龙头企业示范引领,在全行业全面推动建筑建造和拆除相关材料、工艺、机械等要素的精细化和信息化管理。

(5)基于现有的建筑能源管理平台和建筑模拟技术,监测和预测建筑OCE,形成典型建筑OCE数据库。现有建筑能耗管理平台采集的能耗数据,可结合各类能源碳排放因子转化为建筑OCE。与此同时,有必要预测电力碳排放因子的变化趋势,及时发布区域动态电力碳排放因子基础参数。在普及数据采集和模拟预测的基础上,形成建筑OCE的目标值,为进一步推广低碳政策、法规和技术提供基础数据支持。

(6)继续推行绿色建筑认证引导OCE减量。第5节的比较显示,满足各种绿色认证(低能耗建筑、绿色建筑、净零能耗建筑、主动式建筑、被动式建筑等)的案例组,其LCCE明显低于非认证组,表明现有的绿色建筑技术对实现低碳目标具有积极作用。因此,应继续执行建筑能效标准以控制能源消耗,与此同时,优化建筑能源结构,特别是通过开发当地可再生能源供应当地建筑使用,以降低能源EFe

(7)加强利益相关方在建筑设计、技术集成和工程应用示范方面的协作,减少建筑ECE。随着OCE的降低,ECE的影响将进一步提高。基于第5节的分析,应重点关注以下几个方面:基于新型低碳建材的轻质建筑结构体系;模块化制造体系、装配式建筑和工业化建造技术;建筑垃圾减量化、高品质循环利用、既有建筑延寿策略和技术;典型建筑项目在使用、报废、回收、再利用、开发阶段各环节碳减排技术的集成。

7 结论

本文对建筑LCCE相关内涵、计算方法和减量技术进行了文献综述。梳理了全球161项研究共826个计算案例,包含85项、69项和7项分别涉及LCCE、仅ECE和仅OCE的研究。从研究目标和思路、计算方法、基础参数、减碳策略等方面阐明了现有建筑LCCE研究存在的局限和挑战,并提出了相应的发展建议。

对案例碳排放计算方法的梳理表明,虽然ISO 21930已为建筑生命周期阶段划分提供了依据,但实际中并未被严格遵守。计算了A1‒A3、A4‒A5、B1‒B5、B6‒B7、C1‒C4和D阶段的研究分别占总量的90.7%、56.5%、26.7%、57.1%、32.9%和13.7%。建筑ECE计算存在较大问题,仅9.4%的案例计入了技术设备系统,对B1‒B5阶段产生的“复发隐含碳排放”缺乏考虑,C1‒C4阶段和D模块缺乏结合项目实际的计算,而多是基于假设。

从案例中提取生命周期各阶段的碳排放计算结果,总体上,A1‒A3、A4‒A5、B1‒B5、B6‒B7、C1‒C4和D阶段碳排放中位数分别为321.2、32.2、114.9、20.9、1515.0和-188.6 kgCO2e·m-2,在LCCE中贡献比重的中位数分别为15.6%、1.6%、7.1%、1.2%、75.2%和-4.1%。在ECE相关的项目中,所有阶段对建筑总ECE的贡献均不容忽略(即贡献均不小于5%)。建筑ECE与结构类型密切相关,木结构被一致地认为最低碳,而钢和混凝土结构之间对比存在截然不同的结论。

基于建筑碳排放分布与减碳热点的分析,从减少建材和运行能源活动数据(ADm、ADe)、降低建材和能源碳排放因子(EFm、EFe)、利用系统补充效益(CED)和其他(CEe)6个方面,归纳建筑碳减排技术要点并进行减碳效益分析。ADe和EFe相关技术主要作用在OCE,采用主、被动建筑节能技术的优化方案与基准方案相比,可减少10%~72%的OCE,低碳电力替代可减少9%~67%的OCE,生物质能源+区域供热/热泵组合最高可降低90%的OCE。回收木材进行生物质产能和化石能源替代,理想情况下可实现净零碳乃至负碳。

ADm和EFm相关技术主要作用在ECE,优化方案与基准方案相比,通过优化建筑结构选型和尺寸,使用强度更高、替换频率更低、预期寿命更长的建筑材料,可减少4.4%~31.6%的ECE,混凝土预制可减少1.5%~26.3%的ECE。采用木材替代混凝土或钢材作为主要建筑材料,可降低13.0%~96.5%的ECE。基于快速生长植物的建筑材料、土坯和其他传统建筑材料的低碳潜力也引起人们的高度关注。在建材生产阶段进行高碳原材料的替代、生产工艺的优化、过程碳排放的利用等,可降低建材碳排放因子。

需要强调的是,各案例研究设定的基准场景不同,因而以上碳减排效益的量化结果不能直接作为不同策略之间横向比较的依据。各案例都涉及对建筑LCCE高度敏感的特定因素,应避免轻易对某一案例得出的结果进行简单引用,或通过概括和演绎得出其他结论。只有根据建筑全生命周期,对所有情况进行详细、具体的分析后,才能进行系统的碳减排策略优化。未来工作中,有必要在一个统一的框架下继续收集实际数据,逐步改善目前建筑LCCE研究基础数据质量不高的现状。

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