材料学中的艺术——超材料

孙竞博 ,  周济

Engineering ›› 2025, Vol. 44 ›› Issue (1) : 153 -169.

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Engineering ›› 2025, Vol. 44 ›› Issue (1) : 153 -169. DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2024.12.011
研究论文

材料学中的艺术——超材料

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Metamaterials: The Art in Materials Science

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摘要

超材料由自然材料组成，但通过人工设计的结构可使其具有超越自然材料的特性。与传统材料研究不同，超材料研究更需要人的创造力，以便通过设计获得所需特性，从而实现所需功能。而这些特性有可能在自然材料中并不存在。因此，超材料研究需要突破现有材料学研究范式，如同艺术家创作艺术一样，将人的设计思想融入材料学研究中，创造新材料。本文从如何实现超材料的“超凡属性”的角度回顾了过去20余年超材料研究中的重要进展，其中着重讨论了基础科学和工程领域中超材料的未来发展趋势。

Abstract

Composed of natural materials but constructed using artificial structures through ingenious design, metamaterials possess properties beyond nature. Unlike traditional materials studies, metamaterials research requires great human creativity in order to realize the desired properties and thereby the required functionalities through design. Such properties and functionalities are not necessarily available in nature, and their design can break through the existing materials ideology. This paper reviews progress in metamaterials research over the past 20 years in terms of the materials innovations that have achieved the designation of “meta.” In particular, we discuss future trends in metamaterials in the fields of both fundamental science and engineering.

关键词

超材料 / 超表面 / 人工智能 / 折纸 / 剪纸 / 艺术性

Key words

Metamaterials / Metasurface / Artificial intelligence / Origami / Kirigami / Artistry

引用本文

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孙竞博,周济. 材料学中的艺术——超材料[J]. 工程（英文）, 2025, 44(1): 153-169 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2024.12.011

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1 引言

艺术泛指具有创造性的人类活动，包括绘画、雕刻、建筑等具体化的创造，也包括音乐、舞蹈、文章等文学作品。艺术伴随着人类文明的产生与发展，是人类文明的重要组成部分，从史前时代至今，人类用艺术记录现实生活、未来幻想、对未知自然力量的崇拜。因此，艺术也是一种表达方式，是人类情感、思想、观念和理想的体现。它能够触动人的心灵，让人产生共鸣，感受到创作者的情感和思想。

伴随人类文明产生与发展的基本要素即物质世界，其本质是材料。从史前人类开始使用简单工具到如今高度发达的现代文明，历经石器时代、铜器时代、铁器时代等各个历史阶段，都充分体现了材料科技的进步。而这些进步均发生在自然界现存材料的范围内。世纪之交，超材料概念的出现使人类对材料产生了颠覆性的认知[1]。就如同艺术源于生活，高于生活，超材料依然由自然材料构成，却可以带来自然材料所不具有的超常属性。超材料就如同材料学中的艺术一样，体现了人类突破现有思维模式的创造力，甚至可将此前数万年来一直存在于艺术中的幻想变成了现实。

2 超材料的起源

超材料的概念最早源于前苏联科学家Veselego的思想实验——负折射率材料[2]。折射率是材料的基本光学属性，常规材料的折射率为正数，负折射率材料并不存在。因此，负折射率及其相关新奇物理效应也无法被实验观测与验证。20世纪末，英国科学家J. Pendry提出了人工结构：金属线[3]与开口谐振（split ring resonator, SRR）[4]，并通过理论研究证明可以分别获得等效负介电常数与负磁导率。此后，美国科学家D. R. Smith以这两种结构为基本单元构造负折射率材料，并在实验中成功地观测到了负折射现象[5‒6]。至此，超材料以一种颠覆认知的艺术呈现在人们面前。

称其为艺术，不仅是因为其极具几何美感的外观构造。其所具有超常物理属性的人工基元成为人造原子。如图1所示，其超常物理属性负折射源于所设计人工基元的铜制精巧结构而并非其组分材料铜的本征属性，这一过程充满了设计感与创造性，本身就是一种艺术创作，它赋予了人类几乎无限的能力去创造自然界所未有，允许将人的想象力发挥到极致。

在负折射率超材料的发展过程中，通过人工结构的设计，可以通过构造电磁谐振的方式分别获得负介电常数与负磁导率，那么，也就意味着，可以通过同样的方式获得很大的正数、近零、高损耗等特殊介电常数/磁导率[7‒9]，即任意介电常数/磁导率，乃至任意折射率，如图2 [6,8‒10]所示。除人工基元可带来的超常属性外，其序构方式也会使人工材料整体具有特殊属性，在前述可构造任意折射率的基础上，结合特定的序构，可以利用材料实现电磁波的空间变换，由此衍生出了变换光学这一重要研究方向[11‒14]，其中最为瞩目的成果即隐身衣[10,15‒16]。其将一直以来仅存在于文学艺术作品中的隐身变为现实。

3 超材料的发展脉络

超材料最早在微波波段实现[5‒6,10]，这主要是由于超材料的前提是等效介质理论，要求其人工原子尺寸远小于工作波长。因此，对于波长处于宏观尺度的微波段而言，更容易制备在此波段工作的超材料。此后经过20余年的蓬勃发展，超材料已拓展至光学[17‒20]、力学[21‒24]、声学[25‒29]、热学[30‒33]等多个领域。本文中我们不以常用的时间线或者学科领域分类的方式回顾超材料的发展史，而是从设计思想的角度探讨超材料的独特艺术性。超材料的关键在于如何实现“超”。总的来讲，可将其分为：反常属性、强化属性与强控制能力等，概括为三个成语：无中生有、无与伦比和无所不能。

3.1 反常属性（无中生有）

反常属性指的是自然材料不具有的特殊属性，通过超材料来实现，即无中生有，如负折射率[5‒6]、零折射率[7‒8]。这些电磁属性早期在微波领域被广泛研究，并拓展至同属波动性的光学与声学领域。在电磁/光学领域，负折射率本身的负折射行为以及由此带来的倏逝波增强[34]、反常多普勒效应[35‒36]与反常切连科夫效应[37‒38]等，是早期超材料研究的热点。在负折射率材料中，波矢反向使得电磁波的电场、磁场与波矢呈左手定则关系。因此，负折射率材料也被称为左手材料[39‒42]。波矢反向使常规材料中随传播距离呈指数衰减的倏逝波表现为指数增加，并与负折射行为相结合，可用于实现具有超分辨能力的平板透镜，即超透镜（superlens）[34,43‒45]。基于类似负折射率的原理，选取合适的频点，可以获得折射率接近于零的超材料[46‒48]；类似地，通过光子晶体特殊的能带特征，也可以实现近零效果[49‒52]。电磁波在零折射率介质中的波长趋于无穷大，呈现出类似隧穿和波前整形的效果[53‒54]。

与材料的电磁属性类似，材料的力学反常属性从“负”入手，如通过结构设计可获得的负泊松比[55‒56]。与负折射率不同，负泊松比的概念很早即被提出，通过人工设计的结构，如内凹六边形蜂窝结构[57]，或特殊自然材料，如黄铁矿[58]、沸石[59]，以及复合材料，如高分子泡沫[60]、纤维[61]等，均可获得。超材料概念的出现，将结构与材料集于一体，从材料的角度出发，通过结构设计实现材料的反常力学属性。负泊松比超材料具有抗剪切性[62‒63]、抗冲击性[64‒65]、抗凹陷[66]等优越的力学属性，同时具有轻质的特点，利用这些特点，南京工业大学的任鑫教授团队针对负泊松比钉子做了系统的研究，如图3（a）所示[67]，提出了如何实现高性能钉的有效方案。负泊松比的诸多优异性能使其广泛用于吸能[68‒69]、隔振[70‒71]、防御材料[72‒73]、支撑结构[74‒75]等，在航空航天、国防军事、医疗等领域具有重要应用。不仅限于负泊松比，曾经仅存在于理论曲线的负刚度[76‒77]、零刚度[78‒80]等其他力学参数，均可通过超材料实现。

负刚度材料的特殊能量转换机制可用于吸能材料；与双稳态机制相结合，实现自锁、可重构等功能，在软体机器人领域具有重要应用[81‒82]。当人施加力于负刚度材料时，负刚度材料可以给人一种塌陷或者踩空的感觉，利用这一点，西湖大学姜汉卿教授团队将负刚度应用于虚拟现实技术，提供多维度感官，极大地提升了虚拟场景的真实感；零刚度材料主要用于隔振材料，如图3（b）所示[83]。与零折射率类似，零刚度也是一个理论绝对值，所以长期以来，多是以趋近绝对零刚度的准零刚度形式存在。如图3所示，姜汉卿、吴玲玲团队基于恒力机构，通过能力循环机制，首次实现了具有绝对零刚度的超材料，使其可用于全频段的能量屏蔽功能，从而实现真正意义上的完美隔振[84]。

3.2 强化属性（无与伦比）

很多材料属性虽然存在于自然材料中，但是表现微弱，导致其应用受限。通过超材料的方式可以使这类属性得到极大强化，其中最为典型的就是光学各向异性。常规材料的介电各向异性在光频段十分微弱，介电张量主对角元差异在0.1~0.4量级[85‒91]。通过金属/介质材料的各向异性序构，如多层结构[92‒96]、金属线阵列[97‒99]，可以使材料不同方向的介电常数符号相反，从而实现“无与伦比”的极强各向异性。早期根据这种超材料介电张量的数学定义（即主对角元符号相反的矩阵为非正定矩阵），将其称为非正定介质[100]，后来根据其具有的双曲等频线[图4（a）] [95]而将其命名为双曲超材料[101]，并被广泛采用。值得一提的是，这种非正定的矩阵不仅限于介电常数矩阵，同样也适用于磁导率矩阵，从而获得具有强各向异性磁导率的超材料[102‒103]。基于这种介电常数或磁导率的强各向异性，可以获得能量负折射行为，而这种负折射的波矢折射率仍为正。

双曲各向异性的最重要特性是支持倏逝波的传输。与常规材料中的倏逝波指数衰减、左手材料中倏逝波的指数增加不同，双曲材料中的倏逝波仍是传输模式[101]，并与双曲材料强各向异性对光能流传输行为的控制能力相结合，可最终实现倏逝波转化为传导模的功能。因此，用双曲超材料制成光学透镜，即双曲超透镜（hyperlens），如图4（b）所示[104‒105]，可以突破光学衍射极限。用于光学图像的显微放大，可实现超分辨显微[96,101,104,106]，加州大学伯克利分校的Liu等[104]最早在紫外波段演示了在365 nm波长分辨50 nm物体的实验；纽约州立大学布法罗分校的Litchinitser团队制备的弹簧圈超透镜获得在780 nm波长分辨80 nm物体的分辨能力[106]；将双曲超透镜用于光学图像微缩，可获得亚波长成像，实现无衍射光刻[107‒108]。基于此原理，Litchinitser团队发展出的可见光光刻系统，基于h-line（405 nm）技术可获得80 nm线宽[105]。Liu等[109]基于365 nm曝光波长实现了55 nm工艺线宽。

此外，手性、吸收、非线性等重要属性也可以通过超材料的方式获得极大增强。手性是自然界中普遍存在的特征，并在生物、化学、光学、医药等领域有极其重要的应用[110‒112]。常见的手性自然材料源于其构成的微观结构的手性，即镜面对称的分子结构[113‒116]、晶体结构[117]等，但基元一般是手性小分子或超分子，尺度小，取向随机，使材料整体的手性较弱。如图4（c）所示[118]，通过人为构造手性结构，并将其定向排列，可以非常直接地获得强手性超材料[118‒123]。吸收虽然是材料的一种常见属性，但100%的完美吸收确是自然材料所不具有的特性，如图4（d）[124]所示，Landy等[124‒126]基于人工基元设计的具有高损耗且阻抗匹配的超材料，可以在亚波长的传输距离内实现对电磁波的完全吸收，这种超材料在雷达隐身方面具有极其重要的应用价值。

光学非线性是材料在强场作用下表现出的非线性极化行为，并伴有高次谐波的激发。这其中，由于极化与对称性之间的相互耦合，只能在非对称中心的材料中获得偶阶非线性效应[127]。如图4（e）所示，通过人工结构的设计，将光磁场增强，并与光电场相互耦合，共同作用于载流子，从而获得二倍频激发[128‒129]。这种人工二阶非线性不仅可以摆脱材料本征晶体结构的限制，在特定的波段，如太赫兹，材料本征极化的极化效应较弱[130]，通过人工的方式获得二阶非线性效应就成为切实可行的途径。除属性本身的极大强化之外，如何将各属性的使用波段尽可能地拓宽，即强化带宽，也是人们关注的焦点[131]。上述诸多性能的强化为传统器件的性能提升奠定了重要基础。

在力学领域，超强刚度、超强韧性、超轻质量、强耗能也得到广泛关注[132‒133]。例如，基于空心支柱结构的钛合金超材料，可获得接近Gibson-Ashby上限的强度，而自身密度仅为1~1.8 g·cm-3。将负泊松比超材料与泡沫铝相复合，可改善泡沫铝本身的强吸能性能，比吸收能提升近三倍[134]。

3.3 强控制（无所不能）

强控制源于材料特殊属性对物理场的强作用，如电磁/光学中，通过二维结构对电磁波或光的强度分布的束缚，对相位、偏振进行调制。其中最重要的两种表现形式，一是对电磁波/光传输行为的强控制，如图5（a）~（e）所示[135‒139]；二是对电磁波/光波波矢、相位、偏振的强控制，如图5（f）~（j）所示[140‒143]。下面分别进行讨论。

对电磁波/光传输行为的强控制：通常基于材料界面与电磁波/光的强相互作用产生的极化激元，使电磁波/光的能量被局域在界面，电场在远离界面的方向呈指数衰减，从而使其成为沿材料界面传输的表面波。这种表面波的常见形式是基于金属界面的表面等离子体激元（surface plasmon polariton）表面波[135‒136,144‒147]。如图5（b）所示，由于其二维传输属性，可用于高集成度的新一代集成光路。将金属界面结构化，使其与表面等离子体激元产生谐振，即表面等离子体共振（surface plasmon resonance），可获得很强的局域场。该局域场对环境因素极为敏感，在生物、化学探测、传感器等领域有重要应用[148‒153]。此外，满足特定条件的各向异性材料界面也可以支持表面波的传输[154]，如图5（c）~（e）所示。如在中远红外波段，基于范德华晶体材料的声子谐振而在其界面产生的双曲声子极化激元[138,155‒157]；在可见光波段基于各向异性晶体界面的Dyakonov表面波[137,158‒159]等。相比于金属材料在可见光波段的高损耗问题，这种透明晶体界面的Dyakonov表面波可以实现近乎无损耗的高定向二维传输，更加适合用于新一代高集成度二维光路[160‒161]。

对电磁波/光波矢、相位、偏振的强控制：最为典型的例子即超材料的二维形式——超表面[140,142,162‒164]。不同于包括超材料在内的常规光学材料，其诸多性能需要借助较大的几何外形而实现，尤其是在相位调控方面，如聚焦、偏折、偏振调控以及螺旋相位的产生，均需要功能材料具有一定的厚度与外形。基于人工基元对波相位的调制，超表面可以在不足一个波长的厚度完成对电磁波或光的强控制，实现聚焦、干涉、轨道角动量的产生以及自旋-轨道角动量的转换等功能。2012年，哈佛大学Capasso团队提出了广义折射定律的概念[140]，并展示了基于单层金属纳米天线阵列实现的透射光梯度相位分布，进而获得光束偏折及轨道角动量加载的功能，如图5（g）所示。自此，超表面的概念开始被广泛关注，诸多与光相位调制相关的行为，如聚焦[图5（h）]、结构光产生[图5（i）]、全息[图5（j）]等，都可以用超表面来实现[141,143,165‒171]；诸多可以产生相位调制的物理机理，如基于偏振转换的几何相位、基于散射机制的传输相位以及电磁谐振等，被广泛用于超表面的设计[164,169‒171]。这种针对相位、偏振所表现出的“无所不能”的超强控制，可以极大地降低光学器件或系统的尺寸，使超表面成为光学器件与系统小型化、芯片化的重要途径。

另一种强控制指的是对模态的强局域性，如连续束缚态，通过特定介电常数分布条件，获得极高Q值的谐振模态[172‒175]。此外，前面提到的通过物理属性的特定分布实现对电磁波/光场传输的强控制，从而实现视觉隐身[176‒177]；对声波的强控制实现声呐隐身，如图6（a）[178‒181]所示；对热流的操控实现高效热管理如图6（b）[182]所示；以及对地震波的控制实现地震灾害中对城市重要基础设施的有效保护，如图6（a）[183‒184]所示，这些都完美诠释了超材料在操控方面的高超艺术。

4 超材料的发展方向

4.1 对基础研究的推动

超材料本身的可构造性使其成为基础研究中的重要研究平台。从前仅存在于理论层面或只能在极端实验条件观测到的物理现象与效应，可以通过超材料构造相应的实验条件，进而获得实验验证。这一点从超材料的诞生从而实现负折射的观测即可充分说明。超材料与各学科之间不断地交叉、融合，也使其成为推动科学进步的重要动力之一，如图7 [185‒189]所示。这一点在光学方向得到了很好的体现。光量子学中，通过构筑超材料可获得光子自旋霍尔效应[186,190‒192]、PT对称（parity-time symmetry）[193‒197]、超对称（super symmetry）[198‒199]、电磁诱导透明（electromagnetic induced transparency）[200‒201]以及前面提及的连续域束缚态[172‒174]等此前在常规材料中难以观测到的现象与效应。拓扑光子学中，通过超材料构造具有特定拓扑光子态的结构，可以将固体物理学中的针对电子的拓扑绝缘体[187,202]、外尔晶体[185,203]、摩尔转角[188]、极性斯哥明子[204‒205]等概念移植到光子学，并通过超材料来实现[188]，这已成为现代光子学发展的重要方向之一。这些新概念与新效应的实现也为新器件的设计开发提供了新思路。

4.2 智能化

早在2014年，宾夕法尼亚大学Engheta教授提出了计算超材料的概念，实现微分、积分、卷积等功能的基本设想，如图8（a）[206]所示；2019年，该团队在微波段初步实现了基于超材料的模拟计算功能，可用于求解Fredholm积分方程，如图8（b）[207]所示；并于近期，在光频段实现同类功能[208]。这种超材料与波导结合的设计具有易于片上集成的特点，计算过程无中间步骤、无需存储；加之光子计算可并行、无串扰的特点，这些优势使其对新一代光子芯片的开发具有重大意义。

几乎同一时期，超表面也在向智能化发展。2014年，东南大学崔铁军院士提出智能化超表面的概念[209]，通过赋予构成超表面的功能基元可编程性，使超表面对信号具有一定的处理能力，将信号的收发、处理集于一体，由此创建了信息超表面这一新体系，如图8（c）[210]所示，并向系统级应用发展。目前，该团队在基于数字超材料的单天线超分辨成像、吉赫帧率可编程全息成像以及大规模电磁数据挖掘等方面取得了一系列创新成果[211‒215]。

随着信息技术与人工智能的发展，数据量激增，对算力的效率与能耗提出了更高的要求。存算一体计算框架可以避免传统计算过程中数据在存储与计算之间的搬运带来的消耗，从而可以极大地降低功耗，提升计算效率。存算一体计算机中的关键器件是具有存储功能的元件，在电子计算机中，这种元件即忆阻器[216‒218]。通过超材料实现具有记忆功能的元件，这里不仅限于对电信号的记忆功能，还可扩展至光记忆功能，并使其直接参与计算过程[219]，这也是超材料智能化发展的重要方向之一。

不仅电磁/光学超材料正在走向智能化，机械超材料也正在向智能化发展。而用于设计可编程机械超材料的方法可以非常艺术化，如基于折纸和剪纸的传统艺术而构筑的折纸/剪纸超材料。图9 [220‒231]给出了超材料设计中使用的折纸和剪纸的逻辑。纸张是二维（2D）的，而最终的构型是三维（3D）的——这种转换只需通过折叠或剪裁纸张即可实现。此外，通过不同的折叠或剪裁方式，可以用同一张纸构建多种多样的3D结构，同时，所有这些3D结构都是可逆的，按照其折叠/剪裁方式可以回到原来的2D形式。正是这种独特的艺术构型为构建具有独特和可编程机械性能的3D超材料提供了重要的指导，如大形变[232]、高灵活性[233]、可调泊松比[229]、可调刚度[234]和多稳定态[230]等。

通过折纸/剪纸设计机械超材料，其初始平面材料不限于纸；金属[220,235‒236]、聚合物[237]、水凝胶[225,238]、石墨烯[226]和DNA [222‒224]等多种材料都可用于制备这类超材料，其维度跨越宏观到微观[239]甚至纳米尺度[236]。机械超材料的特殊构型赋予其能量收集、传感、驱动、自适应甚至计算和信息处理的能力，使其可应用于智能材料[240‒243]、柔性电子产品[244‒247]、医疗设备[248]和机器人技术[234,249‒253]等诸多领域。

在机械超材料智能化方面，折纸/剪纸的顺从机构极大地增强了超材料的可编程性和可重构性，因而被广泛用于机械地实现计算功能[254]。从最基本的元件——逻辑门（如AND、OR、NOT）[255]到触发器[256]等功能元件再到存储器[257]，传统电子计算机中几乎所有类型的组件都可以通过折纸/剪纸超材料实现。这些机械计算机不仅使计算的执行方式多样化，而且适于在高寒、高辐射或缺乏电力等极端恶劣环境下实现计算功能。

4.3 人工智能

人工智能、机器学习与材料基因组在传统材料学研究中已经得到广泛关注，通过机器学习与大数据分析，从微观组成入手可以很好地指导材料设计与性能开发。类似地，在超材料设计方面，人工智能也逐渐成为重要的工具。传统的超材料设计，通常是从物理原理出发，通过超材料这一载体实现，具体的性能可以通过数值模拟的方式对功能基元的结构与几何参数进行优化。这种设计思路的难点在于如何基于物理机理创造新的超材料构型。这一过程如同“名家作画”，大多数人只能在名作的基础上进行临摹。类似地，经典的超材料，如开口谐振环[5‒6,9‒10]、短线对[18]、渔网结构[18‒19]、多层膜结构[92,95]、高介电常数米氏散射颗粒[171]等，多为超材料发展的初期几位大科学家提出的超材料的经典构型，后人在此基础上进行修改以满足特定需求。结构确定后，最佳性能的获得需要对功能基元进行进一步优化，这一过程通常是通过数值模拟对结构参数进行扫描来完成，而这种优化过程可能会消耗大量的计算资源与时间。2011年，Freitas等[258]提出通过训练的人工神经网络（ANN）对左手材料经典构型开口环+金属线结构的色散行为进行了精确预测，完成对超材料基元的结构优化。对于构型较为简单、功能单一的超材料或者超表面而言，这种优化的优势尚不明显。而通常情况下，超材料/超表面的功能性与其复杂程度呈正相关，功能强大的超材料/超表面包含大量外形各异的基元，若继续采用大量数值模拟试错的方式进行优化，效率极其低下，这一点在消色差超表面透镜设计方面最为明显，如图10 [259]所示。这种超表面透镜的基元尺寸一般在1/10波长，整体尺寸约为波长的40~50倍，根据其固有对称性，一个超表面透镜约由20种构型、20 000个基元构成[259]。已知构型，可以通过数值模拟的方式直接得到该构型所具有的光调制能力（菲涅尔透射系数），这是一对一的映射关系；而消色差透镜的设计过程则是根据消色差聚焦所需的相位与群时延来确定基元构型，这是一对多的映射关系，可能有多种构型同时满足所需性能（相位与群时延）。因此，通常只能通过海量正向计算建立性能参数数据库，然后再通过筛选的方式从数据库中选出所需性能的结构，构成消色差透镜[141,258‒264]。

建立这样一个超原子数据库，通常需要通过常规的数值仿真的方式对数据库中的超原子结构逐个进行计算，将会消耗几乎难以承受的算力与时间。如果通过数值模拟小规模构型得到的准确相位调控能力作为训练数据库来训练机器学习工具，训练完成的机器学习工具则可在极短时间内生成海量数据库，供超表面设计[265‒268]。如图11（a）[269]所示，这种方式属于正向设计，通常由深度学习来实现，并广泛用于包括超材料在内的多种光学器件的设计。清华大学周济院士团队[268]对基于机器学习的可见光消色差透镜的设计、制备到性能检测全流程进行了研究，对理论设计中各步骤（训练数据库的建立、机器学习工具训练、性能数据库的生成、构型筛选）的时间消耗做了精确分析，充分说明了机器学习工具在超表面快速设计中起到的重要作用，并以机器学习获得的超透镜设计进行制备与表征。结果表明，该超透镜性能优异，在各指标与人工设计的超透镜相持平的情况下，具有更易于制备的构型和更小的厚度。

基于正向设计的机器学习工具实际起到加速性能优化的作用，逆向设计的机器学习工具成为超材料的创造者，如图11（b）[269]所示。将功能基元构型像素化，训练机器学习工作，通过尝试不同像素组成理论上可以获得的所有可能构型的性能参数，建立设计数据库；在这一过程中，还可以适当加入制备相关的条件，将过于复杂、难以制备的构型排除，从而直接生成超表面设计。目前，两种设计路线所基于的训练数据库的建立，仍需要通过数值模拟的方式获得，虽然训练数据库的计算量是可承受的[269‒276]，但这也是设计过程中耗时的主要原因。将数据驱动与物理模型进一步结合，使其不完全依赖于数据训练的黑箱，是解决这一瓶颈的发展方向之一。

除了上面提到的广泛使用的机器学习工具之外，主要为自然语言处理而设计的大型语言模型（large language models, LLM）最近也出现在超材料设计中[277]。LLM通常是基于Transformer架构的深度学习模型，如生成式预训练（generative pre-training transformer, GPT）[278]和Transformers衍生的双向编码器表示（bidirectional encoder representations from transformers, BERT）[279]；它们接受了大量数据的训练，因此能够处理、生成和理解人类语言。例如，ChatGPT现在被公众用于生成人工智能艺术等任务。由于其强大的生成设计和性能预测，它们很有可能极大地帮助超材料的开发；还可以促进智能超材料/超表面的进一步发展，如第4.2节所述。这种趋势最近在学术会议中出现[如圣地亚哥召开的光电仪器工程师协会（SPIE）2024年会议] [280‒281]。

4.4 多性能的关联与解耦

多种物理性能的关联在材料学中具有极其重要的应用，在传统材料领域，力、热、光、电、磁等属性相互耦合，构成相应的物理效应，如（逆）压电、热电、热释电、电光、磁光、光电、法拉第电磁感应、霍尔效应等。这些效应几乎覆盖了近现代科技的所有领域。但由于自然材料本征属性的局限，依然存在巨大发展空间。例如，光电探测的基本原理光电效应主要基于光的粒子性，而对于长波波段，中远红外乃至太赫兹，光的波动性更强（光子能量很小），自然材料的光电效应极易被热噪声淹没，具体体现为半导体材料的带隙减小，使光电效应在常温下被材料本征激发所掩盖[282]。因此，中远红外波段基于半导体材料（如碲镉汞）的探测技术，虽然有极快的响应速度，但需要在低温下工作，通过制冷的方式抑制本征热激发带来的噪声。清华大学周济院士团队[283]提出基于洛伦兹力增强以打破时间破缺的原理构筑超材料而获得的直接光电效应，将光的电场直接转化为电信号并输出，可以在非制冷的条件下获得光电探测的超快响应，因而在红外成像、探测领域具有极其重要的应用价值。

性能的解耦对于材料设计而言亦具有极其重要的意义。材料的性能源于其构成微观粒子与结构。因此，当一种材料由于其某种特定的组分或结构使其某个性能表现优异时，也可以在另一方面表现出局限性。如果该优异性能在满足应用的同时，其受局限的性能不影响应用，人们就可以扬长避短，不断提升所需性能。而很多情况下，人们面临着“鱼和熊掌”，如高强度的材料通常密度较大，难以轻量化；高硬度的材料通常韧性较差；用于温差发电的热电材料通常需要好的导电性和差的导热性，然而通常电良导体通常也是热良导体[284‒288]等，都是很多应用场景中遇到的常见问题。如果可以通过人工结构设计的方式，使相关联的两个性能独立实现（即解耦），然后再将相互独立的诸性能按照需求加以组合，可获得所需复合性能的材料。就如同名画需要大师来创造，而同一副名画的色彩通过离散化和像素化之后，就可以通过填色的方式做出可以乱真的名画。

左手材料的设计就是将具有负介电常数与负磁导率的结构进行组合，获得负折射率[6]。隐身衣则以具有特定折射率的人工结构单元为像素，通过特性的空间排布以获得变换光学的效果[10]。材料属性的解耦极有可能实现材料属性的数字化与像素化，使超材料的设计如同搭乐高积木一样，将所需材料属性进行组合，如图12所示，从而达到真正意义上的按需定制，最终实现全能型材料。

4.5 工程化

过去的20年间，随着超材料领域的不断发展，超材料也逐渐从基础科学研究转向工程应用领域。在这一过程中，超材料的优势在于其面向需求“造”材料，而非传统技术框架中，总是陷入面向需求“找”材料的困境。找材料就始终面临着自然界有没有合适的材料以及材料的性能好不好的问题。相比之下，超材料可以针对特定的需求定制材料属性，从而更好地解决工程领域中的关键技术问题[288]。因此，关键问题是如何将超材料的超常属性转化为器件的优异性能。实验室中的每一个超材料都如同一个艺术品，具有超凡的属性，将这样一件“艺术品”转为“工艺品”，使其适合于大规模生产，服务于工程技术，是超材料工程化要解决的首要问题。目前，超材料应用中面临的共性问题是大规模的制备加工。超材料的制备，上到机械加工制造、电路印刷，下至微纳加工，均表现出极强的技艺性。很多超材料的性能已经在实验室中得到了完备的论证，而如何低成本、大规模地生产始终是其产业化道路的主要障碍。

对于电磁/光学超材料领域，超材料的功能单元尺寸与工作波长成正比。因此，微波、射频以及更长波段的超材料可通过传统加工工艺进行制备，产业化发展较快。其中比较有代表性的产品是基于超材料的通信天线。2017年，美国Kymeta公司推出了工作在Ku波段的卫星天线产品，如图13（a）[289]所示，可以在卫星与车、船、飞行器等移动平台之间进行大数据高效通信。基于清华大学赵乾教授团队研究成果[290]而孵化的清超卓影（北京）医疗科技有限公司研发了一种圆柱形超表面磁共振成像（MRI）增强线圈，不但可以大幅度提升1.5T MRI的成像性能，同时也提供了一种全新的MRI图像信噪比增强方法，且该器件为无线无源，无需与设备建立协议接口，可直接用于任何厂家的MRI设备。除临床应用外，该产品还拓展至动物实验，如图13（b）[291]所示，在低磁场的核磁设备实现9.4 T乃至更好的核磁成像效果。

随着通信技术的不断进步，工作频段不断提高，伴随而来的材料极化属性的下降使常规材料属性难以满足信号的高性能发射、隔离、接收。同时，又要保证器件的小型化、轻量化，这些需求促使各大公司将目光聚焦于超材料，通过结构设计来解决上述问题。

光学超材料面临的挑战主要来自加工成本与损耗。实验室中用于基础研究的超材料多是用电子束光刻、离子束蚀刻等方法制备，这类加工手段的特点是精度极高、成本高昂[18‒19,141,143,165‒170,259‒261,263‒264]；另外，产量、良率也使其很难进行大规模生产。目前，多家从事光学超材料研究的大学与企业在实验室原型基础上，尝试通过与半导体芯片工艺、纳米压印等适合大规模制备的加工方法相结合，从而实现量产。此外，即使采用高端的微纳加工工艺，所能得到的特征尺寸极限处于数十纳米尺度，对于可见光而言，仍会造成较大的散射损耗，致使器件性能下降。

力学超材料虽然尺度较大，但构型复杂，多依赖增材制造进行无模成型，3D打印是力学超材料制造的主要手段。3D打印对于树脂类材料的成型较为成熟，而针对金属的选区熔融技术还未满足力学超材料的制备要求。此外，3D打印技术生产效率较低，也是力学超材料产业化的主要瓶颈。

5 结论与展望

超材料是人类设计的材料，更是一种人类认识自然与改造自然的新方式。从前，自然界提供了丰富的材料，供人类使用，当自然材料无法满足人类的需求时，人不再受限于原有的思维框架，在自然材料中寻找、改良，而是通过结构设计的方式进行创造，这是方法论层面的巨大进步，使人类对材料的运用达到新的高度。

超材料是极具创造性的研究工作。研究人员可以发挥自己的想象力和创造力，不仅可以满足应用需求，实现技术进步，还可以进行科学探索，将理论中的想法、现象、规律转化为具体的材料，使人们有更直接地认识与感知，从而推动科学进步。

超材料具有重大的经济价值。随着超材料不断工程化，并逐渐被应用到技术领域，进入市场，其正在创造巨大的经济价值。2023年，全球超材料市场规模已达14亿美元；预计到2030年，其市场规模将超过35亿美元；复合年均增长率将达57% [292]。

超材料正在改变人类的生活。超材料作为一种先进的科学技术，从促进技术进步的角度提升人类的生活水平，包括通信、医疗、交通安全等。超材料最终将回归人类社会，为人类服务。

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