工程细菌胞外囊泡——发展、挑战和机遇

李琦琼 ,  陈鑫洋 ,  谢俊华 ,  聂少平

工程(英文) ›› 2025, Vol. 54 ›› Issue (11) : 317 -335.

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工程(英文) ›› 2025, Vol. 54 ›› Issue (11) : 317 -335. DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2025.06.042
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工程细菌胞外囊泡——发展、挑战和机遇

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Engineered Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles: Developments, Challenges, and Opportunities

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摘要

细菌胞外囊泡(bEV)丰富的微生物相关分子模式(MAMPs)和纳米级结构共同促进了bEV的多种生物活性。基于这些固有特性,研究人员已策略性地采用涵盖物理、化学和基因改造的工程方法来增强bEV的功能多样性。因此,bEV有望作为新型优质载体平台,用于研发靶向各类病理状态的免疫治疗策略。为了建立对bEV的基础认知,本文首先总结了其生物发生、分类、结构和生物分子成分,讨论了bEV的生产和改造技术,并探讨了工程bEV的免疫学特性和作用及其生物医学应用,特别关注先进的工程方法,并概述了工程bEV开发中的挑战和新兴途径。本文旨在系统地构建一个基于证据的综合框架,促进工程化bEV的转化优化和临床实施,从而最大限度地发挥其在生物医学领域的应用潜力。

Abstract

The abundant microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) and nanoscale structures of bacterial extracellular vesicles (bEVs) collectively facilitate their versatile biological activities. Building on these inherent properties, engineering methods encompassing physical, chemical, and genetic modifications have been strategically employed to enhance the functional diversity of bEVs. Therefore, bEVs are being explored as innovative and promising platforms for developing immunotherapeutic strategies targeting diverse pathological states. To establish a foundational understanding of bEVs, we first summarized their biogenesis, classification, structures and biomolecular constituents of bEVs. This review discusses techniques for bEV production and modification and explores the immunological characteristics and effects of engineered bEVs, along with their biomedical applications. Special attention is devoted to advanced engineering approaches and outlining the challenges and emerging avenues in the development of engineered bEVs. This review aims to systematically construct an evidence-based and comprehensive framework that promotes translational optimization and clinical implementation of engineered bEVs, thereby maximizing their application potential in the biomedical field.

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关键词

细菌胞外囊泡 / 合成生物学 / 工程改造 / 生物医学应用

Key words

Bacterial extracellular vesicle / Synthetic biology / Engineering modification / Biomedical application

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李琦琼,陈鑫洋,谢俊华,聂少平. 工程细菌胞外囊泡——发展、挑战和机遇[J]. 工程(英文), 2025, 54(11): 317-335 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2025.06.042

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1 引言

2011年,学界提出通用术语“细胞外囊泡”(EV)来定义所有细胞衍生的脂质双层包裹的膜状结构[12]。一般来说,自发形成的细胞外囊泡群由不同的亚群组成,这些亚群的大小、形态、组成和生物合成各不相同[2]。EV目前被认为是细胞间信号转导的另一种方式,通过系统地将蛋白质、脂质和核酸等多维生物活性物质运输到靶细胞,参于维持微环境稳态[3]。值得注意的是,EV的功能不仅限于生物货物(biological cargoes)的水平转移,还包括在受体细胞表面发出信号、提供营养支持、清除细胞物质以及重新分配间质液或细胞外基质。这凸显了细胞外囊泡在众多生理与病理过程、疾病生物标志物、治疗剂和药物递送载体中的重要作用,并显示出巨大的应用潜力[4]。

细菌胞外囊泡(bEV)可由革兰氏阴性菌和革兰氏阳性菌通过不同的生物发生机制分泌[57]。细菌囊泡根据其来源或制备方法有进一步的具体命名[89]。例如,细胞质膜囊泡(CMV)是指来自革兰氏阳性菌的天然bEV,而外膜囊泡(OMV)是由革兰氏阴性菌自然释放的[5,7]。除了这些天然形式外,研究人员还开发了两种类型的合成bEV(SyBV):通过化学或物理破坏诱导的细菌细胞自组装形成的双膜囊泡(DMV)[10];原生质体衍生的内膜纳米囊泡(PDNV)[1113]。除PDNV外,其他所有细菌囊泡都将不同的细菌成分封装在20~400 nm的球形结构中[11,14]。蛋白质组学和生化分析已经分析了bEV中的多功能货物,包括外膜相关蛋白和周质蛋白、酶、多糖、核酸、肽聚糖和代谢物[1517]。这些纳米尺寸的结构与各种货物成分一起使bEV能够被免疫细胞主动识别和吸收,从而启动免疫反应。

与传统合成纳米材料相比,bEV表现出优异的生物相容性、生理功能、负载能力、易于修改与工业化,这些特性共同使其成为生物医学应用领域中很有前景的药物递送平台。具体而言,易于修改使bEV能够封装小分子治疗药物或通过对亲本细菌进行基因编辑来合成抗体和酶等靶向物质[1819]。同时,固有的膜稳定性可保持货物(如遗传工具和功能分子)的完整性,防止其在递送过程中发生酶促降解或水解[18,20]。这确保了递送到目标部位的货物的结构完整性和功能活性[21]。bEV的兼容性可扩展到混合系统,这类系统引入功能材料以实现协同治疗并提高效率[22]。在生物活性方面,bEV在调节肠道菌群和维持免疫稳态方面发挥着重要作用。新兴证据强调了bEV及其在肠道菌群调节和维持免疫稳态方面的双重生物活性[2324]。例如,乳杆菌CMV和阿克曼氏菌OMV可以逆转肠道菌群失调,维持免疫稳态,因此可作为免疫调节剂,改善结肠炎,诱导结直肠癌细胞凋亡[2527]。此外,bEV还表现出对抗金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)、屎肠球菌和人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV-1)等病原体的抗菌潜力[24,2829],同时通过基因转移和蛋白质转运机制天然促进细胞间通信[3031]。

除了从包装货物中获得多种生理活性外,bEV还可作为分泌系统发挥独特功能。值得注意的是,革兰氏阴性菌的OMV是已知的唯一0型分泌系统(T0SS)实例[32]。该系统保护不稳定的生物分子免受细胞外酶和水环境的侵害,使其有别于传统的分泌系统[33]。T0SS的浓度依赖性分泌动力学在脂质、疏水分子、不溶性物质和毒力因子的运输方面表现出独特的优势[32,34]。对于需要高局部浓度的生物活性分子,OMV介导的浓度可确保高效力并维持生物相关的化学计量要求,而无需大量分泌[33]。此外,该系统能够将多个功能互补的成分协调地递送到目标细胞/组织,从而可能协同增强其活性[34]。尽管天然bEV具有优异的系统特性和良好的治疗效果,但它们仍面临着提取效率低和生产复杂等临床障碍。生物工程技术的最新进展致力于通过战略性改造来克服这些局限性,增强bEV在生物医学应用方面的功能多样性。然而,目前探索提高工程化bEV生产效率和治疗效果的研究仍然有限。

本文系统论述了bEV的类别、生物合成机制、结构和分子组成。随后,文中介绍了细菌工程策略(亲本菌改造)和分离后囊泡工程方法,并重点介绍了它们的应用。最后,文中全面讨论了优化工程化bEV平台的主要挑战和前景。这些进展共同表明,这些工程化bEV有望成为生物医学领域宝贵的功能性纳米材料库。

2 bEV的生成

根据膜成分和来源,bEV可分为两大类:天然bEV和SyBV。天然bEV进一步细分为OMV和CMV,而SyBV包括DMV和PDNV(图1表1)。

2.1 OMV

革兰氏阴性菌具有独特的多层膜结构,包括外膜、内膜、肽聚糖层和周质[35]。外膜主要由膜蛋白和脂多糖(LPS)组成,而内膜主要由磷脂组成。肽聚糖层位于内膜和外膜之间,由周质腔内的蛋白质支撑,这些蛋白质与外膜建立连接。在稳定条件下,这些相互作用可维持结构完整性,但可能因细菌自身调节或外部干扰而减弱。连接减弱导致外膜与肽聚糖层分离,从而导致外膜脱落并通过出芽形成OMV [7]。

OMV是由细菌外膜(直径为20~250 nm)形成的纳米级球形脂质双层。从理论上讲,它们的分子组成反映了细菌外膜的分子组成。研究证据证实OMV中存在关键的外膜成分,包括外膜蛋白、LPS和磷脂。此外,OMV还包裹周质成分和核酸[36]。

OMV已被用于多种领域,包括疫苗开发、药物递送、癌症免疫治疗和抗菌治疗。例如,源自脑膜炎奈瑟菌(Neisseria meningitidis)的OMV已成功用于已许可的B型脑膜炎球菌疫苗(4CMenB; Bexsero,美国),证明了其可作为免疫原性平台,能够引发强大免疫反应[37]。此外,基因工程的进步使得OMV能够被改造,以消除内毒性并增强货物特异性,从而扩大其治疗范围[7]。本文详细讨论了如何利用不同的工程方法来解锁OMV的多方面应用。通常,OMV形成的调控涉及外膜不稳定过程,如相关成分在外膜上的聚集、细菌膜流动性的改变以及肽聚糖交联的破坏[7,38]。

2.2 CMV

CMV的直径范围为20~400 nm,是从革兰氏阳性菌的质膜自然释放的单膜囊泡。这些囊泡包裹着细胞质膜成分以及可溶性细胞质内容物(如核酸和蛋白质)[39]。革兰氏阳性菌的结构框架具有坚固的细胞壁,该细胞壁由肽聚糖和脂磷壁酸(LTA)组成,并通过二酰甘油牢固地锚定在细胞膜上。CMV的生物合成是在膨胀压力下启动的,从内膜延伸,最终被释放到周质空间并穿过肽聚糖层。细胞壁的厚肽聚糖层是阻止CMV释放的屏障。在囊泡出芽过程中,葡萄球菌α型酚溶性调节蛋白(αPSM)可以通过增强膜流动性来促进CMV从质膜释放[40]。遗传调控因子和转录因子(包括σBspo0Asfp)分别进一步调节单核细胞增生李斯特菌、产气荚膜梭菌和枯草芽孢杆菌中CMV的形成[4144]。在金黄色葡萄球菌中,自溶素介导的孔形成破坏了肽聚糖交联,促进了CMV的生成[45]。

CMV的多功能性和广泛的来源使其成为生物医学和生物技术应用的新兴平台。CMV可以从革兰氏阳性菌中分离也可以通过合成设计,用于包裹特定物质(如蛋白质、核酸或小分子),以实现靶向递送[40]。其应用范围广泛,从药物递送系统(作为生物相容性纳米载体)到合成生物学(作为研究生物过程的简约细胞模拟物)[46]。相关工程技术的进步可以克服传统囊泡技术的局限性,并使CMV成为个性化医疗和治疗创新的有前景的工具。

2.3 SyBV

为了解决天然分泌的OMV的局限性(产量不理想和免疫原性),人们开发了主要由DMV和PDNV组成的SyBV。包括DMV在内的SyBV的生产通常始于细菌培养物的生长和收获。DMV的生产通常涉及细菌培养扩增,然后进行高压均质化以破坏细胞膜并释放细胞内容物,从而引发膜碎片自发组装成仿生囊泡[12]。这些DMV的尺寸(20~250 nm)接近源OMV,保留了亲本膜成分,但蛋白质/核酸含量降低[38]。重要的是,鉴于能够卸载细胞内蛋白质和核酸,DMV比OMV表现出更高的生理安全性,同时保留了类似OMV的反应原性和佐剂特性[47]。除了高压均质化之外,利用高pH值去除细胞质成分并解毒膜糖蛋白可能是另一种提高天然OMV安全性的潜在有效策略。具体而言,先用溶菌酶和乙二胺四乙酸(EDTA)处理去除细胞壁,得到原生质球,再用Tris-HCl(pH = 8.0)处理,以破坏完整的结构,形成膜片并去除细胞质成分。随后,采用浮力密度梯度超速离心法获得纯化的膜片,进一步将其经超声波处理制备SyBV [13,48]。这些囊泡的形态和直径与天然OMV相似,且具有污染物浓度低、核酸负荷低和细胞质蛋白相对较少的特点[13]。

PDNV是通过溶菌酶降解革兰氏阳性菌的细胞壁或革兰氏阴性菌的外膜,然后将得到的原生质体机械挤压成100~800 nm的囊泡而制成的。PDNV的特点是其大小易于控制,不含毒性外膜成分、细胞碎片、蛋白质聚集体和其他污染物。值得注意的是,由于去除了热原(如LPS),PDNV的毒性低于天然分泌的bEV,但仍能诱导相当甚至更强的免疫反应[11,13,4950]。最近的一项研究从共生菌株(嗜黏蛋白阿克曼菌、长双歧杆菌和短双歧杆菌)中构建了混合PDNV,与单一来源的PDNV相比,这些新型纳米功能单元表现出增强的肿瘤靶向能力,同时能促进树突状细胞成熟和协调抗肿瘤免疫[50]。混合PDVN显示出更高的生产效率、更短的制备工艺和更好的稳定性。更具体地说,经过10 h以上的分离/纯化,OMV的产量在1 L细菌(OD600:0.6~1.0)中一般不超过5 mg,而混合PDVN的囊泡蛋白产量在5 h内很容易达到40 mg [50]。

3 bEV的工程改造

bEV凭借独特的非细胞体系、纳米级结构、良好的载药能力和生物相容性,有望成为广泛应用的多功能平台[5]。然而,天然bEV的临床转化也存在一定的局限性,主要包括以下方面:①由于培养条件的波动,批次间成分、产量、大小和生物活性存在差异;②涉及活微生物生产结构复杂的bEV的生产过程中存在固有的生物变异性[10,18];③由于工业规模生产的技术限制(如低温蛋白质过表达要求),可扩展性有限[10,51];④在生物医学领域的靶向性差,尤其是在针对癌细胞和一些难以触及的组织方面[52]。bEV中存在有毒有害或免疫原性成分(如外囊泡中的内毒素),也引发了安全性问题[38]。

为了突破这些局限性,旨在提高bEV产量、靶向性、免疫原性和批次均质性的工程策略具有巨大的转化价值。本文总结了针对不同应用的bEV改造策略,涵盖亲本菌的改造和bEV分离后的改造(表2 [10,53141])。系统梳理的研究进展将围绕三个关键方面展开:bEV释放诱导、表面修饰和管腔修饰(图2)。

3.1 bEV释放诱导

提升bEV产量的战略方法集中在细菌培养优化和亲本菌株工程两方面(图3)。培养参数的优化涉及两个关键要素:营养调节和环境压力的诱导。

3.1.1 培养优化

培养优化主要包括三个方面:调整营养成分、物理和化学刺激。在缺乏某些营养物质的培养物中,细菌通过不同的机制调节bEV。例如,铁和硫酸盐的消耗导致负责磷脂转运的VacJ/Yrb转运蛋白下调,从而抑制磷脂在外膜上的积累,破坏膜对称性并增加bEV的释放[5354,142]。同样,半胱氨酸耗竭会激活氧化应激途径,从而诱导多种细菌应激因子,从而促进bEV的产生[55]。此外,Mg2+缺乏会提升脱乙酰酶PagL蛋白的水平,而该蛋白可催化脂质A的去乙酰化[38]。这种酶促修饰使脂质A的横截面积减小,诱导其倒圆锥形构象,引发膜膨胀,最终促进bEV的产生[66,143]。

培养参数的改变也会显著影响bEV的产量。暴露于环境压力源[如极端温度、酸性pH值、氧化条件和紫外线(UV)照射]会刺激bEV的迅速释放,这是一种即时的保护性反应[143,6365]。具体而言,高温条件不仅会增加膜流动性,而且还会促进喹诺酮样假单胞菌信号的产生,这些信号在热应激下与LPS强效相互作用,从而促进bEV的产生[56]。相反,低温条件已被证明可以诱导某些细菌的应激反应并促进bEV的产生[57]。在不利于生长的pH条件下,bEV形成过程中外膜的重组有助于维持细胞膜的完整性[58]。值得注意的是,高溶解氧的外部压力会通过氧化应激途径调控脑膜炎奈瑟菌产生bEV [59]。脑膜炎奈瑟菌的OMV生产也可以通过连续培养系统进一步调节,实现高达4.0 L的日产量和超过600 h的培养时间,同时保持与传统方法相当的产品特性[144]。由于培养过程中的细微变化会显著影响bEV的质量和活性,因此基于培养条件的参数优化通常必须与严格的质量评估系统地结合起来。

3.1.2 物理和化学处理

物理和化学干预可以改变细菌的生理状态,从而刺激bEV的产生。去污处理和螯合剂的应用可以破坏细菌膜的稳定性,从而促进bEV的分泌[6667]。另一方面,清洁剂(如脱氧胆酸盐或十二烷基硫酸钠)也可以消除bEV外膜的LPS,从而最大限度地减少LPS引发的先天免疫反应[145]。同样,螯合剂(如EDTA)可以中和LPS的负电荷,诱导膜不稳定,随后促使bEV分泌[6869]。这种效果类似于去垢剂,但相对较温和,从而能够将LPS和天然货物保留在bEV中[146]。

暴露于亚致死浓度的抗生素可激活保护性应激反应并促进bEV的产生[7071]。环丙沙星可诱导DNA碎片化并激活SOS反应,这是一个由DNA损伤触发的系统。被激活的基因会抑制或阻止细胞分裂,暂时影响膜状态,从而促使bEV的释放[72]。值得注意的是,伊拉环素(eravacycline)诱导的鲍曼不动杆菌OMV富含外膜蛋白,并含有抗性相关蛋白,如腺苷三磷酸腺苷(ATP)结合盒,这提示亚致死浓度的抗生素可能有助于抗生素的散播[73]。抗菌肽同样能刺激bEV的释放,尽管它们诱导的囊泡中磷脂酰甘油水平升高,从而损害了其热稳定性[7475]。

超声处理等机械方法可通过增加膜不稳定性来提高DMV的产量[6062]。由细菌膜碎片产生的DMV可能含有天然产生的bEV中不存在的物质[60]。尽管超声处理可提高DMV的产量,但这些囊泡并不能完全代表bEV的体内蛋白质组成,因此需要进行全面评估。氮空化技术可以快速制备铜绿假单胞菌衍生的纳米囊泡[10],该方法制备的DMV由整个细菌膜形成,并保留了细菌膜的完整性。该方法可以将15~20 mL细胞悬浮液放大到10 L,同时保持良好的重现性。此外,由于操作性质温和且氮气具有保护作用,在制备过程中膜蛋白不会受损,并且可以避免氧化[10]。这些优势使DMV成为疫苗开发的新兴技术[10]。至关重要的是,所有方法都可以塑造所得bEV的大小、成分、蛋白质水解和稳定性,从而直接决定bEV引发的免疫反应的结果[15,147148]。

3.1.3 基因工程

基因工程也已用于改造细菌以促进bEV的分泌,主要的改造目标是与外膜连接相关的分子[149]。由于Tol-Pal系统在连接外膜和肽聚糖层方面起着至关重要的作用,因此通常是工程突变体的目标,以增加囊泡产量[100,150]。在鲍曼不动杆菌中,外膜蛋白A(OmpA)基因的缺失会破坏其与肽聚糖衍生的二氨基庚二酸的相互作用,从而削弱外膜稳定性并促进OMV的分泌[104]。类似地,大肠杆菌中结构基因Lpp的敲低(大肠杆菌)会削弱外部成分与肽聚糖层之间的结合,从而增加bEV的释放量[101]。除了破坏细胞壁结构外,包膜成分(如LPS和肽聚糖碎片)的积累还会进一步加剧外膜上的应激,从而促进bEV的分泌[102]。例如,沉默与VacJ/Yrb转运系统相关的基因会导致外膜中磷脂的积聚并诱导bEV的产生[54,56]。过表达策略也被证明是有效的:外膜蛋白酶T(OmpT)的上调通过裂解肽聚糖锚定蛋白来增强bEV的分泌[103],而脱酰酶PagL和水解酶(PGase)的过表达导致LPS呈倒置锥形,并裂解肽聚糖,从而共同促进膜弯曲和囊泡过度形成[66,135]。

尽管基因改造能够自发产生囊泡,但人们仍然担心改造后的bEV与天然bEV之间存在差异,这可能会影响其活性。例如,degP突变体产生的bEV在货物成分方面,与天然大肠杆菌的存在显著差异,尤其是在富含周质蛋白方面[151]。此外,在乡间布丘氏菌ΔtolB突变体产生的bEV中出现了多层囊泡结构,而大肠杆菌ΔtolR bEV进入上皮Caco-2细胞的能力降低[152153]。基因改造的另一个缺点是不同细菌之间突变的有效性存在差异,因此需要专门的研究来识别不同bEVs中的特定突变。

3.2 bEV表面修饰

bEV膜表面工程最常用的三种方法是膜融合/涂层、化学修饰和基因工程。与包埋抗原相比,抗原暴露在囊泡表面更有利于通过激活抗原特异性B细胞来诱导抗体生成(图4)[38]。

3.2.1 膜融合

膜融合技术涉及机械挤出介导的与其他来源膜结构的整合。这种融合赋予了bEV新功能并带来潜在的治疗优势[154]。值得注意的是,bEV具备整合原核膜的能力,从而增强其治疗效果[10,8384]。例如,bEV-癌症EV(通过膜融合技术形成的混合膜)具有肿瘤靶向特性和免疫原性,能够将包覆聚乳酸羟基乙酸共聚物(PLGA)-吲哚菁绿(ICG)的纳米颗粒(NPs)靶向递送到肿瘤细胞[84]。

3.2.2 膜涂层

涂层是一种应用广泛的重要纳米技术,能增强EV的功能、组织靶向能力以及可扩展性[155]。在这一方面,Chen等[86]采用金黄色葡萄球菌CMV包覆的磁性间孔硅纳米颗粒(MSN,这些颗粒内含ICG),实现MSN-ICG向树突状细胞(DC)的靶向递送。此外,加入Arg-Gly-Asp肽后,沙门氏菌和大肠杆菌OMV在小鼠中的肿瘤靶向能力分别提升了2.5倍和11倍[8788]。磷酸钙(CaP)通过pH响应的控释物质进一步增强了这一能力,同时中和了酸性肿瘤微环境(TME)并延长了肿瘤积累的循环时间[89]。为增强这一特性,将叶酸(肿瘤靶向配体)掺入CaP壳体中,可促进其对小鼠肿瘤的主动靶向作用[89]。

另一种类似的间接方法是通过循环细胞内化,然后再输送至目标细胞[90]。该方法的有效性通过利用经抗CD11b抗体修饰的NPs靶向循环中性粒细胞验证,其在小鼠肿瘤中发生后续积累[90]。为提高中性粒细胞摄取bEV的效率,研究引入了模拟病原体的纳米病原体(NPN)来封装bEV。使用CD11b修饰NPN在小鼠外周血中靶向中性粒细胞的效率仅为30%,而bEV包膜NPN的靶向效率高达41% [9091]。与天然bEV相比,该涂层技术不仅增强了血液循环的稳定性,还增强了对抗原特异性的免疫反应[87,156]。这一特征也适用于来自肺炎克雷伯菌和大肠杆菌NPs的OMV,如牛血清白蛋白(BSA)、碱基和壳聚糖基的NP,这些NP协同增强bEV诱导的免疫反应[92,9596,97]。同样,将干酪乳杆菌和植物乳杆菌的CMVs涂覆在醛/硫酸盐乳胶微粒上,可诱导抗炎效果并缓解炎症引起的肠道屏障功能障碍[94]。这些增强的免疫反应可能归因于包覆的bEV具有均匀的尺寸,因其体内弥散能力增强[97]。上述证据表明,当bEV被包覆或装载到NPs上时,bEV的抗原性提升,进而增强了免疫效应。然而,触发免疫反应特性的影响可能因所用NP类型而异。为规避NP相关变异性,引入氮空化来源的细菌膜纳米囊泡,产生稳定的免疫原性DMV,无需外部NP [10]。

3.2.3 化学修饰

化学修饰是一种将外源抗原或分子锚定在bEV表面的常用技术。相关方法主要可分为两类:共价反应和非共价反应。在EV膜表面广泛使用的共价技术包括生物接合、点击化学和醛胺缩合[38]。针对抗原特异性靶向作用,已有研究有效利用了已二酸、碳二亚胺和硫醇-马来酰亚胺等化学剂[7677]。尽管如此,这些技术需要在结合前对bEV和外源抗原进行预处理,涉及多次操作,可能导致颗粒聚集。为应对这些挑战,有研究提出了一种精细的化学偶联方法,采用一种简单且安全的无洗涤剂方案,用于高效制备携带异源抗原的广义膜抗原模块(GMMAs)[78,157]。该系统采用两种不同的化学方法——双琥珀酰亚胺辛二酸脂钠盐(BS3)交联或还原胺化,使蛋白质抗原和多糖通过赖氨酸残基直接偶联,无需外部抗原衍生化[76,79]。这种灵活性使GMMA系统成为开发针对多种病原体的结合疫苗的便捷“即插即用”技术。值得注意的是,当靶向缺乏天然赖氨酸残基的分子(如某些多糖)时,还需要额外引入氨基/肼连接子[79]。

与共价修饰方法不同的是,非共价修饰可以通过战略性实施多价静电相互作用、疏水插入或受体-配体结合来实现[38]。代表性应用包括精氨酸-甘氨酸-天冬氨酸(RGD)和αvβ3整合素靶向配体(RGP)通过功能化bEV表面,随后通过融合效应和静电相互作用与ICG偶联[82]。另一种新颖策略利用表面暴露的SpyCatcher蛋白设计bEV,这些蛋白可与目标蛋白自发形成共价键,而目标蛋白融合至互补的SpyTag(一种同源的13-氨基酸序列)[80]。该方法可利用化脓性链球菌表面蛋白的SpyCatcher结构域来鉴定SpyTag。鉴定后,SpyTag中天冬氨酸侧链与SpyCatcher中赖氨酸之间建立了共价异肽连接[158]。该连接系统显著增强了bEV平台的抗原展示能力,并比溶细胞素A(ClyA)融合系统实现更高效的呈现[81]。该方法的模块化特性使得bEV的可扩展生产成为可能,并具备将多种靶抗原整合到表面的灵活性。此外,由磷脂酰乙醇胺-聚乙二醇(DSPE-PEG)-生物素或DSPE-PEG-叶酸(FA)组成的胶束可以整合到外膜中。由此产生的生物素化bEV对多种链霉亲和蛋白结合成分(包括链霉亲和素-染料结合物和抗原-抗体复合物)。这种相互作用为生物活性的特异性标记和调控提供了研究前景[159]。

3.2.4 基因工程

对亲本细菌进行基因工程改造也可用于bEV表面修饰,以增强其免疫原性[149]。其中一种常见策略是表达与载体蛋白融合的重组蛋白,引导其导向外膜并表达于bEV表面[160]。常用的主导蛋白包括ClyA(一种形成孔的溶血蛋白)、参与弥漫黏附(AIDA-I)自转运结构域的黏附蛋白、脑膜炎线孢子线虫的血红蛋白蛋白酶(Hbp)和fHbp [38]。历史上,表面抗原呈现的概念起源于自转运蛋白系统。这些蛋白以未折叠状态通过Sec通路,随后周质伴侣SurA和β桶组装机器A(BamA)介导它们在外膜上的折叠、组装和易位[161]。适当折叠的自转运蛋白通过C端β结构域牢固附着在外膜上。通过与大肠杆菌自身转运蛋白Hbp合并,可以在弱化的鼠伤寒沙门氏菌菌株中产生多种重组蛋白抗原,这些抗原可以呈现在外膜表面[114]。大肠杆菌OMV表面的融合抗原利用了Hbp自转运系统,将侧结构域D1、D2、D4和D5替换为结核分枝杆菌(Mtb)的抗原,具体为Ag85BC、Ag85BN、ESAT6和Rv2660c [115]。然而,该抗原展示方法在处理较大颗粒蛋白片段时效果可能有限[162]。此外,通过与fHbp融合,伯氏外表蛋白A(OspA)成功暴露于脑膜炎线孢杆菌OMV表面。在比较脑膜炎线孢杆菌OMV与内表达OspA的免疫原性时,只有表面暴露型能诱发OspA特异性[105]。同样,沙门氏菌OMV表面的外膜蛋白和LPS可比囊泡包膜异源抗原引发更严重的免疫反应[107]。

基因工程策略不仅能够对bEV进行复杂表面修饰,还能其增强免疫原性。一项研究通过引入ClyA融合的程序性死亡1(PD1)细胞外结构域,工程化了大肠杆菌OMV表面。该修饰增强了肿瘤部位的OMV积累和程序性死亡配体1(PD-L1)阻断,触发比自然OMV更强的抗肿瘤免疫反应。这从血清和肿瘤组织中促炎细胞因子水平均提升1.5倍,以及小鼠肿瘤生长障碍增加了1.5倍得到证明[122]。此外,抗原与ClyA的融合表达使得更大蛋白的呈现成为可能。在大肠杆菌DH5α株中,鲍曼氏单胞菌的Omp22成功显示在OMV表面[116]。随后,在与ClyA融合后,严重急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒2型(SARS-CoV-2)的受体结合结构域(RBD)仍可呈现并触发抗体中和[117]。由于SARS-CoV-2病毒具有呼吸亲和力,黏膜免疫被认为是一种极具前景的方法。

近期有研究报道通过采用多种方法,在bEV表面展示RBD或刺突蛋白以激活鼻腔免疫。这些研究在免疫球蛋白G(IgG)和黏膜免疫球蛋白A(IgA)高滴度中已取得成功,并具有协同保护作用[111113]。此外,当表皮生长因子(EGF)与作为内膜脂蛋白锚定蛋白的PrsA [163]融合后,EGF会出现在大肠杆菌PDNV表面[164]。为优化抗原呈现,研究人员开发了59种内源性蛋白缺乏的大肠杆菌突变体,增加了bEV表面暴露。这反过来提高了靶向抗原的载荷能力,进而增强免疫反应[126]。

除了蛋白质成分外,糖工程方法还促进了多糖抗原在bEV上的呈现[165]。例如,Price等[120]构建了一个模块化质粒,编码所有必需的糖基转移酶、翻转酶和聚合酶,用于合成肺炎链球菌血清型14胶囊(CPS14)。在该质粒转化为缺乏O抗原起始糖基转移酶的大肠杆菌突变体后,肺炎链球菌产生的荚膜多糖与LPS的脂质A核心相连,使大肠杆菌释放的工程OMV能够运输CPS14抗原。另一项研究中,Tularia O抗原多糖(O-PS)是在缺乏O-PS的大肠杆菌株中人工合成的。外源O-PS通过脂质A核心糖基化促使关键O-PS结构的组装。该过程产生的糖基化OMV可以保护小鼠免受兔热病感染[125]。另一种研究思路是聚N-乙酰-D-氨基葡萄糖(PNAG),这是一种由多种病原体表达的保守碳水化合物多糖免疫原,其已展现出极高的研究价值。显示PNAG的bEV可诱导PNAG特异性抗体反应,成功促进了细胞和动物模型中多种PNAG产株病原体的消灭,最终保护其免受致命感染[100]。这些发现表明,针对通用多糖抗原的工程化含多糖bEV,能够诱导对多种含PNAG病原体的全面免疫防御。

多糖掺入的便捷性凸显了bEV作为治疗候选者的潜力。化学修饰和遗传方法均可将抗原表位呈现于bEV上,有效提升免疫原性,从而为疫苗开发提供显著灵活性。由于含颗粒抗原的摄取在促成抗原呈递细胞(APCs)及其后续免疫反应中起关键作用,谨慎选择锚定蛋白或工程技术对于确保重组表位的高效连接和呈现,同时保持正常的bEV生物生成或亲本细菌的存活能力至关重要。

3.3 bEV管腔修饰

除了表面修饰外,异源抗原还可以通过物理操作、化学改造和基因工程技术包埋在bEV中。在bEV内部空间中定位具有免疫调节特性的抗原和分子也是可行的(图5)。

3.3.1 物理工程

物理工程技术有助于将货物装载到bEV腔中。例如,SOST的小干扰RNA(siRNA)被装载到来自益生菌大肠杆菌的OMV中。大肠杆菌Nissle 1917(EcN)通过电穿孔技术进行转染,该技术能够调节WNT信号通路,刺激骨髓基质细胞(BMSCs)成骨向分化,最终改善骨质疏松症[133]。此外,利用超声处理将岩藻黄素负载到乳酸杆菌衍生的PDNV中,这些囊泡可改善结肠炎症反应[64]。重要的是,这种工程制备策略可以大规模合成携带治疗药物的膜囊泡。

3.3.2 化学工程

化学处理是另一种极具应用前景的纳米技术,可用于装载治疗药物并提升bEVs的功能[166]。在这种方法中,治疗分子需要通过bEV膜内化到bEV中。将小分子药物装载到bEVs中的一种非侵入性方法是通过共孵育,这种方法允许通过被动扩散装载疏水性药物,并且已经成功用于装载氟喹诺酮类药物[166]。此外,修饰的siRNA已经成功地通过与胆固醇结合以产生疏水相互作用,以及与单链硫代磷酸酯结合以使siRNA通过EV膜内化到EV中[167168]。这项研究提出,bEV可以利用一种温和的、非侵入性的封装策略来有效地装载siRNA,这可以保持囊泡载体和治疗有效载荷的结构完整性和生物活性。

3.3.3 基因工程

对生产bEV的细菌进行基因改造,可以通过引导生物活性分子的表达和周质定位来增强免疫原性[149]。囊泡中抗原的存在可能激活细胞毒性T淋巴细胞(CTL)反应,并诱导病原体特异性抗体的产生[129]。多种抗原,如肺炎球菌表面蛋白(PspA)、鼠衣原体HtrA、链球菌抗原和大肠杆菌周质碱性磷酸酶(PhoA)已被靶向定位到bEV的腔内,从而引发针对致病感染的保护性免疫反应[107,127136]。例如,与N端β-内酰胺酶信号序列融合的PspA通过II型分泌系统(T2SS)输出到周质,并整合到鼠伤寒沙门氏菌OMV的内部。OMV可引发适度的抗体反应并提供针对肺炎链球菌的有效保护[107]。相反,没有PspA的OMV无法诱导特异性抗体反应并赋予免疫防御[107]。类似地,在霍乱弧菌OMV中异源表达大肠杆菌的PhoA可诱导霍乱特异性抗体的产生[136]。链球菌抗原掺入OmpA前导序列会导致大肠杆菌OMV周质面形成天然构象,最终诱导产生功能性增强的抗体滴度[127]。这些发现表明,内化的抗原可能在接种后诱导bEV结构变化,导致内部抗原暴露或释放,随后被APC识别并引发靶向抗体反应。此外,在SyBV形成过程中,周质中硫氧还蛋白(Trx)与二硫键(Dsb)蛋白的相互作用导致与人乳头瘤病毒(HPV)的E7蛋白融合的Trx在周质内富集[129]。综上所述,基因改造的简单性为将抗原加载到bEV中开辟了多种可能。

3.4 bEV工程技术的选择

不同的工程策略表现出不同的特点并适用于特定的应用,为bEV的优化提供了多种选择。物理和化学改性的操作程序相对简单且具有很高的灵活性,可以快速加工和功能化bEV [5]。这些方法特别适用于必须在短时间内制备功能化bEV的场景。然而,修饰的bEV不太稳定,在生理环境中可能会脱落功能分子。此外,化学反应可能会引入意外的毒性或免疫反应,从而限制其在某些生物医学领域的应用[169170]。虽然物理方法消除了对化学试剂的需求并最大限度地减少了潜在的毒性,但它们可能会损害bEV的天然结构和完整性[171]。此外,物理和化学改性通常导致装载效率低下和货物控制精度有限[172]。

相比之下,基于基因表达调控的基因工程方法可以靶向敲除毒素相关基因,从而增强生物安全性[173]。该策略从基因层面彻底改造bEV,展现出较高的精确度和稳定性,使其成为疫苗开发等需要长期效应的临床应用的极具前景的选择[172173]。然而,由于需要深厚的遗传学知识和复杂的实验设计,基因工程技术门槛较高,延长了总体制备时间。

根据功能化位点分类,bEV的工程策略可分为管腔修饰和表面修饰。管腔修饰可有效保护货物免受酶促降解,并通过将治疗分子封装在bEV内实现细胞内释放[174]。然而,这伴随着有限的装载效率,并且无法保证膜的结构完整性[169]。管腔修饰相对简单的程序使其广泛应用于需要有效载荷保护的应用开发,但存在目标特异性不足的限制[175]。

相比之下,表面修饰可以通过膜表面配体工程精确调节bEV的生物分布,这对于靶向治疗至关重要[175]。该策略延长了循环时间并降低了免疫清除率;然而,其复杂的工艺流程可能会改变bEV的天然理化性质[175176]。两种策略都表现出明显的优势:管腔修饰擅长货物保护,而表面修饰则擅长靶向递送。将两种策略整合在一起构建多功能系统是未来重要的发展方向,可以优化治疗效果并减少临床应用中的潜在副作用,充分拓展bEV在生物医学中应用的潜力[169]。

应通过全面评估特定应用要求(如药物输送与免疫疗法)来选择适当的工程策略,同时考虑关键因素,如修饰精度、制备时间、成本效益和产品稳定性。例如,疫苗开发通常优先考虑基因工程[173],而紧急治疗输送需求则可优先考虑化学和物理方法[177]。总的来说,无论是按工程方法(如基因或化学修饰)还是按功能靶位(管腔或表面修饰)分类,这些策略都增强了bEV的生物医学效用。因此,最佳发展路径是整合互补的工程方法来构建多功能系统[178]。在临床应用中,这种协同整合可以增强治疗效果和临床预后,同时最大限度地减少不良反应。

4 bEV工程应用的挑战和未来方向

基于bEV的可塑性,通过化学工程、基因工程等改造可以进一步提高其在产品均质性、稳定性、生产率、药物负载、靶向递送、多途径协同作用和潜在副作用减弱方面的性能[38]。合成生物学的进步使得我们可以定制设计工程菌株以适配广泛的应用。bEV的主要应用之一——疫苗的开发——是工程bEV在生物医学领域应用的最佳例子。PorA是脑膜炎奈瑟菌的主要免疫原性蛋白,其在不同菌株之间差异很大。这种菌株特异性使得疫苗难以达到预期的效力[179]。由于可修饰的bEV中存在PorA,荷兰研究人员利用转基因菌株开发了含有多种PorA变体的可修饰bEV,从而研制出了MenB疫苗[145,179]。这种富含PorA的bEV疫苗已成功在古巴、挪威和新西兰等地区抗击由MenB引起的脑膜炎疫情,有效率达到70% [179]。

工程化的bEV作为异源重组蛋白的载体具有显著的优势。从实验室菌株获得的bEV与天然bEV蛋白融合,可以有效地将异源抗原蛋白引入bEV表面[18]。例如,大肠杆菌衍生的ClyA(一种常用的执行伴侣)已成功与炭疽芽孢杆菌保护性抗原的结构域4和绿色荧光蛋白实现融合[181182]。这些基因工程策略与即插即用技术相结合,为暴露异源抗原提供了更灵活的疫苗平台,从而可能显著提高疫苗效力。添加金纳米粒子的大肠杆菌DH5的bEV已被证明可在小鼠中引发更强、更持久的特异性免疫反应[156]。然而,未暴露于表面的抗原蛋白也可能引发特异性抗原-抗体反应。这种现象的发生机制是靶抗原在周质空间过度表达,从而增加了其被纳入bEV的机会[107]。大肠杆菌的OmpA信号肽已成功与几种过表达的链球菌衍生蛋白结合[127]。

bEV从实验室研究推广到临床应用仍面临诸多挑战。首先,尽管临床研究尚未检测到摄入bEV引发的毒性,但要确保不残留生物毒素和LPS等免疫原性成分,仍然是推进bEV应用的关键优先事项[47]。目前的证据已经揭示了几种参与细胞与组织侵袭和扩散的毒力因子,及其潜在的作用方式。丝氨酸蛋白和剥脱毒素可以缓解物理屏障的破坏,而透明质酸裂解酶和胶原酶则会攻击宿主的细胞外基质[183185]。降低此类风险的措施包括通过基因技术敲除毒素合成基因,通过物理/化学处理方法生产无毒素bEV,以及使用革兰氏阳性菌和毒素合成缺陷菌株[51]。为了简化临床转化,应首先在动物模型上进行初步的安全性和有效性评估,以减轻后续临床安全性评估的经济负担。

bEV临床应用的另一个关键障碍是bEV生成过程中的批次间异质性。虽然存在许多分离和纯化bEV的方法,但缺乏统一的标准[186187]。考虑到bEV制备过程中的细微变化可能会影响结果的可重复性,相关研究人员需要加快制定关键参数和质量指标的指南,例如,国际细胞外囊泡学会(ISEV)推出持续更新的细胞外囊泡研究最基本信息(MISEV)[188190]。所需参数应包括但不限于亲本菌和bEV的特性(大小、组成、纯度、生物活性、功能分子以及生物毒素负荷等)、储存和运输条件、应用范围、摄入方式和安全剂量[191]。标准化生产和分离的技术前提是准确的产品检测方法,需要开发采用多组学方法(蛋白质组学、转录组学、宏基因组学和脂质组学)的绝对定量技术,以确保临床使用的良好批次均质性。

此外,bEV生产的可扩展性和技术复杂性限制,仍然是bEV工业化和临床应用的主要障碍[192]。再者,bEV发生的模糊机制尚未考虑核酸的积累。遗传分子通常需要穿过周质并被包裹在肽聚糖层中才能形成bEV。细胞裂解后,RNA和DNA被释放到基质中,会导致bEV药物污染。此外,目前的生产技术在实现足够的药物负载能力和靶向特异性方面面临挑战,这些都阻碍了bEV的工业化和临床应用[47]。基于对高效获取均质和安全产品的主要需求,未来的研究应侧重于阐明bEV形成的潜在机制和优化细菌大规模培养参数[14,189]。

5 结论

bEV已成为细菌与宿主通信的重要介质[30,193194]。尽管全面应用仍面临挑战,但考虑到其独特的无细胞系统、纳米级结构、优异的生物相容性和环境友好性,基于bEV的疗法已成为比其亲本细菌更受欢迎的技术。已有充分证据表明,一些工程化的bEV在多种生物应用方面具有巨大潜力,如用于基因治疗的药物递送和疫苗生产。工程化bEV的巨大潜力使其可作为治疗开发的模块化平台,从而极大地扩展其生物医学用途。

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