Heterogeneous household responses and indoor temperature inequality in the clean heating transition

Engineering ›› DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2025.07.034

review-article

Xinzhu Zheng ^a
, Ling Zhang ^a
, Yuxin Bai ^b^,^c
, Jianhui Cong ^d
, Tianyi Zhang ^b^,^c
, Yue Ren ^a
, Jie Li ^b^,^c
, Yang Su ^b^,^c
, Junyuan Xu ^b^,^c
, Can Wang ^b^,^c^,^*

Author information +

History +

PDF (1111KB)

Abstract

The residential clean heating transition has proven effective in reducing air pollution and improving public health. However, most research to date has focused on its economic and environmental implications, with limited attention being paid to household behavioral responses and heating experiences. To address this gap, we conducted household surveys in Linfen, a city in northern China, and analyzed residents’ self-reported indoor temperatures, heating costs, and heated areas before and after the transition. The results reveal substantial disparities across clean heating pathways. Compared with households that are continuing to use coal or biomass, those switching to gas experienced a 1.7 °C drop in indoor temperature and an annual cost increase of 1318 CNY, suggesting energy-limiting behaviors in response to higher expenses. In contrast, households adopting electric heating reported a 1.2 °C temperature increase without a significant rise in costs. Further analysis using the Gini coefficient and Oshima index shows that indoor temperature inequality increased among coal-to-gas households, while no such trend was observed among coal-to-electricity households. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating behavioral responses and thermal equity into the design of clean heating strategies.

Keywords

Clean energy transition / Human behaviors / Indoor temperature / Just transition

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Xinzhu Zheng, Ling Zhang, Yuxin Bai, Jianhui Cong, Tianyi Zhang, Yue Ren, Jie Li, Yang Su, Junyuan Xu, Can Wang. Heterogeneous household responses and indoor temperature inequality in the clean heating transition. Engineering DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2025.07.034

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	Geng G, Liu Y, Liu Y, Liu S, Cheng J, Yan L, et al.Efficacy of China’s clean air actions to tackle PM2. 5 pollution between 2013 and 2020.Nat Geosci 2024; 17(10):987-994.

[2]	Zhang Q, Zheng Y, Tong D, Shao M, Wang S, Zhang Y, et al.Drivers of improved PM2. 5 air quality in China from 2013 to 2017.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2019; 116(49):24463-24469.

[3]	Ma S, Guo S, Zheng D, Chang S, Zhang X.Roadmap towards clean and low carbon heating to 2035: a provincial analysis in northern China.Energy 2021; 225:120164.

[4]	Wang M, Wei C.Toward sustainable heating: assessment of the carbon mitigation potential from residential heating in northern rural China.Energy Policy 2024; 190:114141.

[5]	Wen H, Nie P, Liu M, Peng R, Guo T, Wang C, et al.Multi-health effects of clean residential heating: evidences from rural China’s coal-to-gas/electricity project.Energy Sustain Dev 2023; 73:66-75.

[6]	Shen G, Ru M, Du W, Zhu X, Zhong Q, Chen Y, et al.Impacts of air pollutants from rural Chinese households under the rapid residential energy transition.Nat Commun 2019; 10(1):3405.

[7]	Xiang C, Xie L, Zheng X.Can a mandate be justified by unrealized gains? Evidence from a heating energy transition program in China.Energy Policy 2024; 188:114097.

[8]	Hu Z.When energy justice encounters authoritarian environmentalism: the case of clean heating energy transitions in rural China.Energy Res Soc Sci 2020; 70:101771.

[9]	Wang M, Xie L.Households’ participation in energy transition and sustained use of clean energy: evidence from China’s clean heating program.China Econ Rev 2023; 80:102005.

[10]	Zhao B, Zhao J, Zha H, Hu R, Liu Y, Liang C, et al.Health benefits and costs of clean heating renovation: an integrated assessment in a major Chinese city.Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55(14):10046-10055.

[11]	Meng W, Zhu L, Liang Z, Xu H, Zhang W, Li J, et al.Significant but inequitable cost-effective benefits of a clean heating campaign in northern China.Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57(23):8467-8475.

[12]	Zhou M, Liu H, Peng L, Qin Y, Chen D, Zhang L, et al.Environmental benefits and household costs of clean heating options in northern China.Nat Sustain 2022; 5(4):329-338.

[13]	Zhang Z, Zhou Y, Zhao N, Li H, Tohniyaz B, Mperejekumana P, et al.Clean heating during winter season in northern China: a review.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2021; 149:111339.

[14]	Zhang W, Yun X, Meng W, Xu H, Zhong Q, Yu X, et al.Urban residential energy switching in China between 1980 and 2014 prevents 2.2 million premature deaths.One Earth 2021; 4(11):1602-1613.

[15]	Lu X, Zhang S, Xing J, Wang Y, Chen W, Ding D, et al.Progress of air pollution control in China and its challenges and opportunities in the ecological civilization era.Engineering 2020; 6(12):1423-1431.

[16]	Wang J, Lu X, Du P, Zheng H, Dong Z, Yin Z, et al.The increasing role of synergistic effects in carbon mitigation and air quality improvement, and its associated health benefits in China.Engineering (Beijing) 2023; 20:103-111.

[17]	Feng T, Du H, Coffman DM, Qu A, Dong Z.Clean heating and heating poverty: a perspective based on cost–benefit analysis.Energy Policy 2021; 152:112205.

[18]	Wang S.The pros and cons of the coal-to-gas transition.Ecol Econ 2018; 34(2):10-13.

[19]	Wang Q, Fan J, Kwan MP, Zhou K, Shen G, Li N, et al.Examining energy inequality under the rapid residential energy transition in China through household surveys.Nat Energy 2023; 8(3):251-263.

[20]	Xie L, Hu X, Zhang X, Zhang XB.Who suffers from energy poverty in household energy transition? Evidence from clean heating program in rural China.Energy Econ 2022; 106:105795.

[21]	Chen Y, Li J, Zhang Y, Yang F.Pollution and carbon reduction effects of the pilot policy on clean winter heating in northern China: evidence from the county level.China Popul Resour Environ 2025; 23(1):85-95.

[22]	Liu W, Zhang J, Yang T.Will China’s household coal replacement policies pay off: Aa cost–benefit analysis from an environmental and health perspective.J Clean Prod 2022; 357:131904.

[23]	Liu H, Mauzerall DL.Costs of clean heating in China: evidence from rural households in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region.Energy Econ 2020; 90:104844.

[24]	Li Y, Qiao L, Liu M, Yang Y, Yu F, Yuan X, et al.Access to affordable and clean domestic heating: a critical review on rural clean heating transformation in China’s Jing–Jin–Ji and its surrounding areas.Energ Buildings 2024; 323:114829.

[25]	Barrington-Leigh C, Baumgartner J, Carter E, Robinson BE, Tao S, Zhang Y.An evaluation of air quality, home heating and well-being under Beijing’s programme to eliminate household coal use.Nat Energy 2019; 4(5):416-423.

[26]	Brewer D.Household responses to winter heating costs: implications for energy pricing policies and demand-side alternatives.Energy Policy 2023; 177:113550.

[27]	Chen Y, Li Y, Jiang H, Huang Z.Research on household energy demand patterns, data acquisition and influencing factors: a review.Sustain Cities Soc 2023; 99:104916.

[28]	Bai C, Zhan J, Wang H, Liu H, Yang Z, Liu W, et al.Estimation of household energy poverty and feasibility of clean energy transition: evidence from rural areas in the eastern Qinghai–Tibet plateau.J Clean Prod 2023; 388:135852.

[29]	Papada L, Kaliampakos D.Being forced to skimp on energy needs: a new look at energy poverty in Greece.Energy Res Soc Sci 2020; 64:101450.

[30]	Carley S, Konisky DM.The justice and equity implications of the clean energy transition.Nat Energy 2020; 5(8):569-577.

[31]	Cong S, Nock D, Qiu YL, Xing B.Unveiling hidden energy poverty using the energy equity gap.Nat Commun 2022; 13(1):2456.

[32]	Betto F, Garengo P, Lorenzoni A.A new measure of Italian hidden energy poverty.Energy Policy 2020; 138:111237.

[33]	Eisfeld K, Seebauer S.The energy austerity pitfall: linking hidden energy poverty with self-restriction in household use in Austria.Energy Res Soc Sci 2022; 84:102427.

[34]	Ma T, Zhang S, Xiao Y, Liu X, Wang M, Wu K, et al.Costs and health benefits of the rural energy transition to carbon neutrality in China.Nat Commun 2023; 14(1):6101.

[35]	Liu J, Luo X, Liu X, Li N, Xing M, Gao Y, et al.Rural residents’ acceptance of clean heating: an extended technology acceptance model considering rural residents’ livelihood capital and perception of clean heating.Energ Buildings 2022; 267:112154.

[36]	Deng M, Ma R, Lu F, Nie Y, Li P, Ding X, et al.Techno–economic performances of clean heating solutions to replace raw coal for heating in northern rural China.Energ Buildings 2021; 240:110881.

[37]	Winther T, Wilhite H.An analysis of the household energy rebound effect from a practice perspective: spatial and temporal dimensions.Energ Effi 2015; 8(3):595-607.

[38]	Song X, Zhang S, Huang H, Ding Q, Guo F, Zhang Y, et al.A systematic review of the inequality of health burdens related to climate change.Front Environ Sci Eng 2024; 18(5):63.

[39]	Xie L, Zhou O.What improves subjective welfare during energy transition? Evidence from the clean heating program in China.Energ Buildings 2021; 253:111500.

[40]	Huang L, Nock D, Cong S, Qiu YL.Inequalities across cooling and heating in households: energy equity gaps.Energy Policy 2023; 182:113748.

[41]	Kwon M, Cong S, Nock D, Huang L, Qiu YL, Xing B.Forgone summertime comfort as a function of avoided electricity use.Energy Policy 2023; 183:113813.

[42]	Hernández D.Sacrifice along the energy continuum: a call for energy justice.Environ Justice 2015; 8(4):151-156.

[43]	Liu L, Ma X, Wen W, Sun C, Jiao J.Characteristics and potential sources of wintertime air pollution in Linfen.China Environ Monit Assess 2021; 193:252.

[44]	Notice of the Linfen Municipal People’s Government Office on issuing the action plan for comprehensive air pollution control in the autumn and winter of 2024–2025.Report.Linfen: The People’s Government of Linfen City; 2024. Chinese.

[45]	Gini C.Measurement of inequality of incomes.Econ J 1921; 31(121):124-125.

[46]	Oshima HT.Income inequality and economic growth: the postwar experience of Asian countries.Malay Econ Rev 1970; 15(2):7-41.

[47]	Luan L, Liu P, Mei Y.The impact of pilot carbon market on firms’ performance in China.Energy Econ 2025; 142:108164.

[48]	Zhang Q, Zhang L, Nie J, Li Y.Techno–economic analysis of air source heat pump applied for space heating in northern China.Appl Energy 2017; 207:533-542.

[49]	Song L, Wu J, Wang Z, Wang X, Xing X.Calculation the expenditure demand and payment stress of rural clean heating.Ecol Econ 2021; 37(4):177-182.

[50]	Chen S, Xue M, Wang Z, Tian X, Zhang B.Exploring pathways of phasing out clean heating subsidies for rural residential buildings in China.Energy Econ 2022; 116:106411.

[51]	Galvin R.The rebound effect in home heating: a guide for policymakers and practitioners. Routledge, London (2015)

[52]	.Heating should not adopt a “one-size-fits-all” coal restriction policy.Report. Beijing: Economic Daily; 2017. Chinese.

[53]	Xu S, Ge J.Sustainable development of clean heating in rural northern China: locally tailored energy options.Sustain Prod Consum 2023; 35:655-667.

[54]	Chen H, Chen W.Potential impact of shifting coal to gas and electricity for building sectors in 28 major northern cities of China.Appl Energy 2019; 236:1049-1061.

[55]	Monschauer Y, Delmastro C, Martinez-Gordon R.Global heat pump sales continue double-digit growth.Report. Paris: International Energy Agent; 2023.

[56]	Rosenow J, Gibb D, Nowak T, Lowes R.Heating up the global heat pump market.Nat Energy 2022; 7(10):901-904.

[57]	.Renewable solutions in end-uses: heat pump costs and markets.Report. Masdar City: International Renewable Energy Agency; 2022.

[58]	The People’s Government of Yaodu District.2024 clean heating retrofit implementation plan for Yaodu District.Report. Linfen: The People’s Government of Yaodu District; 2024. Chinese.

[59]	Lekavi Včius, Bobinait Vė, Galinis A, Pa Ažėraitė.Distributional impacts of investment subsidies for residential energy technologies.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2020; 130:109961.

[60]	Hou L, Ding H, Liu Y, Wang S.Evaluation and suggestion on the subsidy policies for rural clean heating in winter in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region.Energ Buildings 2022; 274:112456.

[61]	Wang F, Shang Y, Zhang P, Zhang W, Li J.Exploring the economically sustainable solutions for clean heating in rural northern China. Fundam Res. In press.

[62]	Liu S, Liu H, Mauzerall DL.Improving building envelope efficiency lowers costs and emissions from rural residential heating in China.Environ Sci Technol 2022; 57(1):595-605.

[63]	Casquero-Modrego N, Goñi-Modrego M.Energy retrofit of an existing affordable building envelope in Spain, case study.Sustain Cities Soc 2019; 44:395-405.