Toward Sustainable Agriculture: The Design of Environmentally Friendly, Economical, and Modular Vertical Farming Systems

Engineering ›› DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2025.07.043

review-article

Junye Wu ^a^,^b^,^c
, Yoke Wang Cheng ^b^,^d
, Guiying Lin ^b^,^c
, Dequan Xu ^a^,^b^,^c
, Yiying Wang ^b^,^c
, Clive Chong ^e
, Yanjun Dai ^a^,^b
, Chi-Hwa Wang ^b^,^c^,^*
, Tianshu Ge ^a^,^b^,^*

Author information +

History +

PDF (2413KB)

Abstract

The increasing population and continuous urbanization make food security a key consideration in sustainable development. Efficient farming strategies with low environmental footprints are thus increasingly required to meet food demands. This study presents a design for environmentally friendly, economical, and modular vertical farming systems, in which vegetables are cultivated in a carbon dioxide (CO₂)-enriched atmosphere enabled by direct air capture (DAC) and subjected to artificial light exposure. We established a vertical farming setup and conducted experiments to identify productive cultivation strategies by regulating lighting, CO₂ concentration, biochar application, and plant species. Additionally, a self-developed DAC rotary adsorber was utilized to achieve stable and efficient CO₂ enrichment. Compared with the control group, the fresh weight of the vegetables in the experimental groups increased by up to 57.5 %. Furthermore, we performed a comprehensive evaluation of the design and demonstrated that integrating photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) and DAC units increased the system’s net present value (NPV) by 157 % compared with a conventional design without these units. Importantly, we found it possible to maintain the low carbon footprint of the system (0.468 kg-CO₂ equivalent (CO₂eq)·kg⁻¹-vegetable) in the production process. Parametric studies and an application analysis on a global scale reveal the wide adaptability of this strategy to diverse conditions. These findings, together with the modular characteristics of vertical farming systems, highlight the promising potential of this design to increase food security and foster sustainable agriculture.

Keywords

Vertical farming / Biochar / Direct air capture / CO₂ enrichment / Environmental footprint

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Junye Wu, Yoke Wang Cheng, Guiying Lin, Dequan Xu, Yiying Wang, Clive Chong, Yanjun Dai, Chi-Hwa Wang, Tianshu Ge. Toward Sustainable Agriculture: The Design of Environmentally Friendly, Economical, and Modular Vertical Farming Systems. Engineering DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2025.07.043

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	United Nations.World population prospects 2024.Report. New York City: United Nations; 2024.

[2]	Wang S, Zhang Y, Ju W, Chen JM, Ciais P, Cescatti A, et al.Recent global decline of CO₂ fertilization effects on vegetation photosynthesis.Science 2020; 370(6522):1295-1300.

[3]	Bren C d’Amour, Reitsma F, Baiocchi G, Barthel S, Güneralp B, Erb KH, et al.Future urban land expansion and implications for global croplands.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2017; 114(34):8939-8944.

[4]	Yin Y, Zhao R, Yang Y, Meng Q, Ying H, Cassman KG, et al.A steady-state N balance approach for sustainable smallholder farming.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2021; 118(39):e2106576118.

[5]	Herrero M, Thornton PK, Mason-D D’Croz, Palmer J, Benton TG, Bodirsky BL, et al.Innovation can accelerate the transition towards a sustainable food system. Nat.Food 2020; 1(5):266-272.

[6]	Llewellyn D.Does global agriculture need another green revolution?.Engineering 2018; 4(4):449-451.

[7]	van SH Delden, SharathKumar M, Butturini M, Graamans LJA, Heuvelink E, Kacira M, et al.Current status and future challenges in implementing and upscaling vertical farming systems.Nat Food 2021; 2(12):944-956.

[8]	SharathKumar M, Heuvelink E, Marcelis LFM.Vertical farming: moving from genetic to environmental modification.Trends Plant Sci 2020; 25(8):724-727.

[9]	Zhang L, Huang L, Li T, Wang T, Yang X, Yang Q.The skyscraper crop factory: a potential crop-production system to meet rising urban food demand.Engineering 2023; 31:70-75.

[10]	Zhang S, Chen Z, Cao C, Cui Y, Gao Y.Photothermal-management agricultural films toward industrial planting: opportunities and challenges.Engineering 2024; 35:191-200.

[11]	Beacham AM, Vickers LH, Monaghan JM.Vertical farming: a summary of approaches to growing skywards.J Hortic Sci Biotechnol 2019; 94(3):277-283.

[12]	Asseng S, Guarin JR, Raman M, Monje O, Kiss G, Despommier DD, et al.Wheat yield potential in controlled-environment vertical farms.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2020; 117(32):19131-19135.

[13]	Benke K, Tomkins B.Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture.Sustain Sci Pract Policy 2017; 13(1):13-26.

[14]	Pomoni DI, Koukou MK, Vrachopoulos MG, Vasiliadis L.A review of hydroponics and conventional agriculture based on energy and water consumption, environmental impact, and land use.Energies 2023; 16(4):1690.

[15]	Kannan M, Elavarasan G, Balamurugan A, Dhanusiya B, Freedon D.Hydroponic farming-a state of art for the future agriculture.Mater Today Proc 2022; 68:2163-2166.

[16]	Explore our diverse solution for full circular farming 2025 [Internet]. Available from: https://evergreenfarm.fi/products-and-services/.

[17]	Sky Greens.Sky Greens vertical farming system-the World’s first low carbon hydraulic commercial farming system [Internet].Singapore City: Sky Greens; undated [cited 2025 Aug 30]. Available from: https://www.skygreens.com/technology/.

[18]	Iacomino G, Sarker TC, Ippolito F, Bonanomi G, Vinale F, Staropoli A, et al.Biochar and compost application either alone or in combination affects vegetable yield in a volcanic mediterranean soil.Agronomy 2022; 12(9):1996.

[19]	Nobile C, Denier J, Houben D.Linking biochar properties to biomass of basil, lettuce and pansy cultivated in growing media.Sci Hortic 2020; 261:109001.

[20]	Luo L, Wang J, Lv J, Liu Z, Sun T, Yang Y, et al.Carbon sequestration strategies in soil using biochar: advances, challenges, and opportunities.Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57(31):11357-11372.

[21]	Ennis CJ, Evans AG, Islam M, Ralebitso-Senior TK, Senior E.Biochar: carbon sequestration, land remediation, and impacts on soil microbiology.Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 2012; 42(22):2311-2364.

[22]	Al-Kodmany K.The vertical farm: a review of developments and implications for the vertical city.Buildings 2018; 8(2):24.

[23]	Ahmed HA, Yu-Xin T, Qi-Chang Y.Optimal control of environmental conditions affecting lettuce plant growth in a controlled environment with artificial lighting: a review.S Afr J Bot 2020; 130:75-89.

[24]	Farhangi H, Mozafari V, Roosta HR, Shirani H, Farhangi M.Optimizing growth conditions in vertical farming: enhancing lettuce and basil cultivation through the application of the Taguchi method.Sci Rep 2023; 13(1):6717.

[25]	Teo J, Mohan R, Zhang S, Gui Y, Sng BJR, Jang IC, et al.Optimization of light and temperature in indoor farming to boost anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation in Indigo Rose tomato.Veg Res 2022; 2(1):1-11.

[26]	Cavar S Zeljkovic, Aucique-Perez CE, De N Diego.Optimizing growing conditions for hydroponic farming of selected medicinal and aromatic plants.Food Chem 2022; 375:131845.

[27]	Pimentel J, Balázs L, Friedler F.Optimization of vertical farms energy efficiency via multiperiodic graph-theoretical approach.J Clean Prod 2023; 416:137938.

[28]	Arcasi A, Mauro AW, Napoli G, Tariello F, Vanoli GP.Energy and cost analysis for a crop production in a vertical farm.Appl Therm Eng 2024; 239:122129.

[29]	Shao Y, Zhou Z, Chen H, Zhang F, Cui Y, Zhou Z.The potential of urban family vertical farming: a pilot study of Shanghai.Sustain Prod Consum 2022; 34:586-599.

[30]	Boyer D, Ramaswami A.What is the contribution of city-scale actions to the overall food system’s environmental impacts? Assessing water, greenhouse gas, and land impacts of future urban food scenarios.Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51(20):12035-12045.

[31]	Hawes JK, Goldstein BP, Newell JP, Dorr E, Caputo S, Fox-Kämper R, et al.Comparing the carbon footprints of urban and conventional agriculture.Nat Cities 2024; 1:164-173.

[32]	Martin M, Elnour M, Siñol AC.Environmental life cycle assessment of a large-scale commercial vertical farm.Sustain Prod Consum 2023; 40:182-193.

[33]	Song S, Hou Y, Lim RBH, Gaw LYF, Richards DR, Tan HTW.Comparison of vegetable production, resource-use efficiency and environmental performance of high-technology and conventional farming systems for urban agriculture in the tropical city of Singapore.Sci Total Environ 2022; 807(Pt 2):150621.

[34]	Fan Y, Luo Z, Hao X, Li S, Kang S.Potential pathways to reduce environmental impact in a greenhouse tomato production: life cycle assessment for different irrigation and fertilization treatments.Sci Hortic 2022; 305:111411.

[35]	Al-Kodmany K.The vertical farm: exploring applications for peri-urban areas.S. Patnaik, S. Sen, M.S. Mahmoud (Eds.), Smart village technology: concepts and developments, Springer International Publishing, Cham 2020; 203-232.

[36]	He X, Wang Y, Tai MH, Lin A, Owyong S, Li X, et al.Integrated applications of water hyacinth biochar: a circular economy case study.J Clean Prod 2022; 378:134621.

[37]	Green Spade.Organic potting soil 40L [Internet].Singapore City: GreenSpade; [cited 2025 Aug 30]. Available from: https://greenspade.sg/product/gs-organic-potting-soil-40l/.

[38]	Pennisi G, Orsini F, Landolfo M, Pistillo A, Crepaldi A, Nicola S, et al.Optimal photoperiod for indoor cultivation of leafy vegetables and herbs.Eur J Hortic Sci 2020; 85(5):329-338.

[39]	Shenzhen Facility Agriculture Industry Association. T/SZFA 03-2019: Specifications for construction of artificial light-type plant factories. Chinese standard. Shenzhen: Shenzhen Facility Agriculture Industry Association; 2019. [Chinese].

[40]	Tappin T, Gomes B.Commercial vertical farm design phase 1 [project design]. California Polytechnic State University, Obispo (2016)

[41]	Zeidler C, Daniel S, Vincent V.Vertical farm 2.0: designing an economically feasible vertical farm - a combined European endeavor for sustainable urban agriculture [Internet]. Munich: Association for Vertical Farming; 2017 Nov 30 [cited 2025 Aug 30]. Available from: https://elib.dlr.de/116034/.

[42]	Wu J, Wang K, Zhao J, Chen Y, Gan Z, Zhu X, et al.A direct air capture rotary adsorber for CO₂ enrichment in greenhouses.Device 2024; 2(11):100510.

[43]	Sandberg M, Sjöberg M.The use of moments for assessing air quality in ventilated rooms.Build Environ 1983; 18(4):181-197.

[44]	Federspiel CC.Air-change effectiveness: theory and calculation methods.Indoor Air 1999; 9(1):47-56.

[45]	Su D, Smith J, Wu Y, Ren ZM.Environmental impact assessment of farming with combined methods of life cycle assessment and farm carbon calculator.D. Su (Ed.), Sustainable product development: tools, methods and examples, Springer International Publishing, Cham 2020; 249-270.

[46]	Dai T, Yang Y, Lee R, Fleischer AS, Wemhoff AP.Life cycle environmental impacts of food away from home and mitigation strategies—a review.J Environ Manage 2020; 265:110471.

[47]	Dorr E, Goldstein B, Aubry C, Gabrielle B, Horvath A.Life cycle assessment of eight urban farms and community gardens in France and California.Resour Conserv Recycling 2023; 192:106921.

[48]	Dorr E, Koegler M, Gabrielle B, Aubry C.Life cycle assessment of a circular, urban mushroom farm.J Clean Prod 2021; 288:125668.

[49]	Shen Y, Song S, Thian BWY, Fong SL, Ee AWL, Arora S, et al.Impacts of biochar concentration on the growth performance of a leafy vegetable in a tropical city and its global warming potential.J Clean Prod 2020; 264:121678.

[50]	Gale NV, Thomas SC.Dose-dependence of growth and ecophysiological responses of plants to biochar.Sci Total Environ 2019; 658:1344-1354.

[51]	Selina Wamucii.China Bok choy Prices [Internet].Nairobi: Selina Wamucii; undated [cited 2025 Aug 30]. Available from: https://www.selinawamucii.com/insights/prices/china/bok-choy/?utm_source=united-states-of-america+bok-choy&utm_medium=button&utm_campaign=price_finder_tool#google_vignette.

[52]	Liu X.Design of a modified shipping container as modular unit for the minimally structured [dissertation].The University of Arizona, Tucson (2014)

[53]	Arora S, Jung J, Liu M, Li X, Goel A, Chen J, et al.Gasification biochar from horticultural waste: an exemplar of the circular economy in Singapore.Sci Total Environ 2021; 781:146573.

[54]	Tripp KE, Peet MM, Pharr DM, Willits DH, Nelson PV.CO₂-enhanced yield and foliar deformation among tomato genotypes in elevated CO₂ environments.Plant Physiol 1991; 96(3):713-719.

[55]	Gobilik J, Rechard GT, Maludin AJ, Alam MA, Benedick S.Efficacy of column hydroponic system for increasing growth and yield of Pak-choy (Brassica rapa L.) per Unit area. Trans.Sci Technol 2021; 8(1):7-24.

[56]	Baiyin B, Tagawa K, Yamada M, Wang X, Yamada S, Shao Y, et al.Effect of nutrient solution flow rate on hydroponic plant growth and root morphology.Plants 2021; 10(9):1840.

[57]	Chen P, Zhu G, Kim HJ, Brown PB, Huang JY.Comparative life cycle assessment of aquaponics and hydroponics in the Midwestern United States.J Clean Prod 2020; 275:122888.

[58]	Solargis.Solar resource maps and GIS data [Internet]. Bratislava: Solargis; undated [cited 2025 Aug 30]. Available from: https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-data/overview.

[59]	European Commission.Photovoltaic geographical information system [Internet].Brussels: European Commission; 2024 Dec 18 [cited 2025 Aug 30]. Available from: https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/.

[60]	Selina Wamucii.Prices, trends & insights [Internet].Nairobi: Selina Wamucii; undated [cited 2025 Aug 30]. Available from: https://www.selinawamucii.com/insights/prices/.

[61]	Dorr E, Goldstein B, Aubry C, Gabrielle B, Horvath A.Best practices for consistent and reliable life cycle assessments of urban agriculture.J Clean Prod 2023; 419:138010.

[62]	Maestre-Valero JF, Martin-Gorriz B, Soto-García M, Martinez-Mate MA, Martinez-Alvarez V.Producing lettuce in soil-based or in soilless outdoor systems. Which is more economically profitable?.Agric Water Manag 2018; 206:48-55.

[63]	Nicholson CF, Eaton M, Gómez MI, Mattson NS.Economic and environmental performance of controlled-environment supply chains for leaf lettuce.Eur Rev Agric Econ 2023; 50(4):1547-1582.

[64]	Gumisiriza MS, Ndakidemi P, Nalunga A, Mbega ER.Building sustainable societies through vertical soilless farming: a cost-effectiveness analysis on a small-scale non-greenhouse hydroponic system.Sustain Cities Soc 2022; 83:103923.

[65]	Banerjee C, Adenaeuer L.Up, up and away! the economics of vertical farming.J Agric Stud 2014; 2(1):40.

[66]

Sany Eé-Mengual, Oliver-Sol Jà, Montero JI, Rieradevall J.An environmental and economic life cycle assessment of rooftop greenhouse (RTG) implementation in Barcelona, Spain. Assessing new forms of urban agriculture from the greenhouse structure to the final product level.Int J Life Cycle Assess 2015; 20(3):350-366.

[67]	Moghimi F, Asiabanpour B.Economics of vertical farming in the competitive market.Clean Techn Environ Policy 2023; 25(6):1837-1855.

[68]	Hospido A, Mil Là i Canals, McLaren S, Truninger M, Edwards-Jones G, Clift R.The role of seasonality in lettuce consumption: a case study of environmental and social aspects.Int J Life Cycle Assess 2009; 14(5):381-391.

[69]	Casey L, Freeman B, Francis K, Brychkova G, McKeown P, Spillane C, et al.Comparative environmental footprints of lettuce supplied by hydroponic controlled-environment agriculture and field-based supply chains.J Clean Prod 2022; 369:133214.

[70]	Kikuchi Y, Kanematsu Y, Yoshikawa N, Okubo T, Takagaki M.Environmental and resource use analysis of plant factories with energy technology options: a case study in Japan.J Clean Prod 2018; 186:703-717.

[71]	Benis K, Reinhart C, Ferr Pão.Development of a simulation-based decision support workflow for the implementation of building-integrated agriculture (BIA) in urban contexts.J Clean Prod 2017; 147:589-602.

[72]	Blom T, Jenkins A, Pulselli RM, van AAJF den Dobbelsteen.The embodied carbon emissions of lettuce production in vertical farming, greenhouse horticulture, and open-field farming in the Netherlands.J Clean Prod 2022; 377:134443.

[73]	Gao T, Erokhin V, Arskiy A.Dynamic optimization of fuel and logistics costs as a tool in pursuing economic sustainability of a farm.Sustainability 2019; 11(19):5463.

[74]	Majeed Y, Khan MU, Waseem M, Zahid U, Mahmood F, Majeed F, et al.Renewable energy as an alternative source for energy management in agriculture.Energy Rep 2023; 10:344-359.