1. Introduction
The ocean, a vital realm for human existence, encompasses distinct spatial zones, such as the free surface, airspace above the sea, and seabed. It also holds an immense wealth of resources, including oil and gas, renewable energy, minerals, and marine biodiversity, forming a crucial component of global life-support systems and representing a valuable asset for human survival and development [
1]. Moreover, as shown in
Fig. 1 [
2], the ocean sectors offer a critical avenue for contributing to many of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for global development [
3].
Modern ocean engineering activities can be traced back to the exploration of offshore oil and gas, which began approximately 80 years ago. Over the years, advancements in technology and methodologies in the oil and gas sector have served as a vital basis for the development of other ocean engineering sectors [
4]. To address contemporary societal challenges, emerging ocean industries are being developed, focusing on serviceability, producibility, safety, and sustainability. An example of the development and utilization of ocean space and resources is illustrated in
Fig. 2 [
5]. These emerging industries include offshore renewable energy (such as wind and solar), marine agriculture, seabed mining, offshore infrastructure development, marine biotechnology, and the exploration of offshore oil and gas in deep-sea and polar regions [
6]. These innovative industries allow ocean resources to be utilised more effectively, providing a diverse resource base while fostering sustainable socioeconomic growth. They also offer significant employment opportunities, thereby enhancing the overall well-being of society and holding significant potential for further development [
7,
8].
Taking China’s ocean-related gross domestic product as an example, it keeps growing annually, as presented in
Fig. 3 [
9], although there was a slowed growth in 2020 during the pandemic period. The ocean-related gross domestic product has approximately doubled from 2010 to 2020, and it is expected to double again by 2035, given the current average growth trend.
Beyond conventional marine sectors, such as fisheries, tourism, and transportation, emerging ocean industries—including renewable energy, aquaculture, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and desalination—are also developing rapidly, as illustrated in
Fig. 4 [
9]. This development seeks to value and integrate the ocean’s ecosystem services that, while not directly monetized, offer substantial benefits to both the economy and human endeavours. These services encompass carbon sequestration, coastal defence, waste management, and biodiversity preservation. According to a 2015 World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) briefing [
10], while fisheries are currently overexploited, there is ample opportunity for growth in both aquaculture and offshore wind power. This paper discusses the technological developments and challenges related to emerging ocean industries.
2. Current status and development trends of emerging ocean industries and infrastructures
Ocean utilization is rapidly developing across various fields, such as energy, food, raw materials, and transport infrastructure, exhibiting trends towards diversification and technological advancement [
11], as displayed in
Fig. 5.
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In the energy sector. The lessons learned from the oil and gas industry, including technology, engineering methods, and project management, are being applied to renewable energy development. Offshore wind and ocean photovoltaics are continuously advancing, with offshore wind farms, in particular, becoming a key contributor to clean energy supply. The global capacity of offshore wind power increased by 10.8 GW in 2023, representing a 24% increase and bringing the total global offshore wind capacity to 75.2 GW [
12]. For example, China has installed 6680 offshore wind turbines, with a cumulative capacity reaching 37.69 GW [
12]. Additionally, the advancement of floating offshore wind turbine demonstration projects [
13], along with wave and tidal energy, showcases the potential for future renewable ocean energy development. The Europe Union (EU) proposed concrete measures to support the sector’s long-term sustainable development, setting binding targets for installed capacity: at least 60 GW of offshore wind and 1 GW of ocean energy by 2030, rising to 300 and 40 GW respectively by 2050 [
14]. The United States is currently experiencing rapid growth in the offshore wind energy market, with a pipeline of over 52 GW [
15], coupled with state targets of 112 GW [
16]. Natural gas hydrates represent a promising frontier in marine energy development, with recent advancements in extraction technologies demonstrating their potential as a transitional energy source, though challenges in reservoir stability and sustainable exploitation require further research [
17]. In addition to renewable energy’s ability to reduce carbon emissions, carbon capture, utilization, and storage provides another pathway by capturing carbon dioxide emissions at the source and securely storing it undersea [
18]. To further meet energy market demands and reduce costs, energy equipment design is trending towards higher power generation capacity.
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In the food sector. It is predicted that the world will need 70% more food by 2050 to feed the increasing global population, according to the World Resources Institute [
19]. The global wild fish capture has stagnated at 80 million tonnes per year (excluding seaweed) since the 1990s, while fish farming production is now equivalent to wild fish catch [
20]. More importantly, seafood is more environmentally friendly with fewer greenhouse gas emissions than terrestrial meat production [
21]. Fish farming has experienced remarkable progress in recent years [
22]. For example, large-scale ocean ranching developed in China’s Yellow Sea region has effectively increased aquaculture yields, whereas Norway’s deep-water cage technology has significantly boosted the production of Atlantic salmon. The development trend of fish farms is shifting towards larger-scale, more sustainable, and technologically advanced systems. Innovations in automated feeding, real-time monitoring, and environmentally friendly practices are driving the industry forward. Future sustainable development also entails reducing the environmental impact and preventing ocean pollution and littering to achieve a better balance between technology and biology.
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In terms of raw material development. Deep-sea mineral exploration has become a key focus of emerging ocean industries in recent years. For instance, polymetallic nodules in the Pacific Ocean have been identified as critical strategic mineral resources by several countries, leading to extensive exploration activities. Advancements in ocean resource extraction are pushing into deeper waters, fuelled by technological innovations and growing resource demands. This progress facilitates the extraction of valuable seabed resources, including polymetallic nodules, sulphides, and cobalt-rich crusts [
23]. Meanwhile, increasing attention is being directed towards protecting fragile deep-sea ecosystems during the resource extraction process.
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In the field of transport infrastructure. The construction of cross-sea bridges and underwater tunnels has significantly enhanced regional connectivity, making these projects important contributors to the economic growth within emerging ocean industries. For instance, China’s Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge and Norway’s floating bridge technology for fjord crossings represent significant breakthroughs in modern ocean engineering technology [
24]. These infrastructure projects have greatly improved regional logistics efficiency and economic connectivity. The future of ocean infrastructure will prioritize resilience, sustainability, and advanced technology. A particular challenge in this regard is the design of infrastructure to endure extreme weather and rising sea levels. Smart technologies and eco-friendly materials will play critical roles in enhancing efficiency, safety, and environmental coexistence.
Other sectors that currently have limited magnitude include maritime biotechnology, bioprospecting, seawater desalination, CO
2 and waste disposal, and coastal protection. Overall, the rapid development of emerging ocean industries in the fields of energy, food, resources, and transport infrastructure has yielded notable industrial achievements. However, significant shortcomings remain in terms of environmental protection and social sustainability. Future growth will need to further balance economic benefits with ecological conservation, steering the industry towards more sustainable development to ensure the responsible utilization and long-term management of ocean resources [
25]. Advanced technological innovation will be the key driving force behind this transformation.
3. Demands and challenges of emerging ocean industries and infrastructures
3.1. Emerging ocean industries: Contribution to the future sustainable well-being of human society
Human society is currently grappling with a series of pressing challenges, including resource depletion, climate change, environmental degradation, and a growing demand for energy and food. The traditional development paradigm, characterized by a heavy dependence on fossil fuels and unsustainable resource consumption, has led to profound ecological imbalances and placed excessive pressures on natural systems. In response, an urgent need exists for a new development model—one that is environmentally sustainable, safe, and resilient. Such a model emphasises reducing carbon emissions, protecting ecosystems, and ensuring the long-term availability of natural resources while simultaneously addressing humanity’s socioeconomic needs.
Emerging ocean industries present a promising pathway to realizing this vision by harnessing the vast and largely untapped potential of the ocean in a sustainable and innovative manner. Through the development of renewable ocean energy sources, such as offshore wind and solar power, and the establishment of ocean aquaculture to ensure food security, these industries can directly tackle the challenges of resource scarcity and environmental sustainability. Furthermore, deep-sea mineral extraction supports the advancement of high-value technologies and green energy solutions, allowing economic growth to progress without compromising ecological balance. By integrating technological innovation with responsible resource management, emerging ocean industries can play a pivotal role in enhancing human welfare and advancing trajectories towards a resilient and sustainable future.
3.2. Resource management in emerging ocean industries: Sustainable ocean utilization
Technological innovations in emerging ocean industries must prioritize environmental protection while driving economic growth, striving to achieve a balance between economic and ecological benefits. For instance, the development of offshore wind energy has increased the supply of clean energy, reducing the dependence on fossil fuels and providing strong support for the green economy. Similarly, advances in intelligent deep-sea mining technologies could enhance the efficiency of ocean mineral extraction and reduce operational costs, potentially unlocking the potential of the ocean economy. However, their environmental impacts require rigorous assessment to ensure sustainable development. Therefore, the adoption of these emerging technologies must always be premised on the principles of sustainable environmental development. The exploitation of ocean resources must be accompanied by robust environmental protection measures to ensure their responsible use [
26].
The current state of the ocean’s ecological environment is relatively fragile, with deep-sea ecosystems being particularly vulnerable. Inappropriate exploitation can cause irreversible damage to these ecosystems. Therefore, technological innovation must be closely integrated with environmental preservation. At present, advanced ocean monitoring systems and ecological restoration technologies can help minimize the negative impacts on the ocean environment. Moreover, the deployment of ocean monitoring and early-warning systems allows for the timely detection of potential environmental risks, enabling swift protective actions to effectively mitigate and control their impact on ocean ecosystems.
Another significant challenge lies in the lack of comprehensive and well-designed ocean spatial and industrial planning, which poses major risks to the sustainable use of ocean resources and the health of ocean ecosystems [
27]. An example is depicted in
Fig. 6. Through scientific planning, ocean activities, such as shipping, fishing, energy development, and ecological conservation, can be appropriately managed to avoid resource conflicts and minimize environmental impacts. In addition, a growing trend towards employing multifunctional equipment to extract various ocean resources through a single integrated facility is emerging, with the potential to enhance the operational efficiency of each function, reduce costs, and minimise environmental footprint. Well-structured ocean spatial planning not only enhances resource-use efficiency but also protects vulnerable ocean ecosystems, balancing economic development with environmental conservation. This, in turn, promotes the sustainable development of ocean industries and contributes to long-term human well-being.
In conclusion, balancing technological progress, economic benefits, and environmental protection within emerging ocean industries is a key challenge for ensuring long-term sustainable development. Only by achieving effective coordination among technological innovation, economic growth, and environmental protection can the health and longevity of the ocean environment, and the economies that depend on it, be safeguarded for future generations.
3.3. Fundamental scientific issues and key technical challenges across the lifecycle of emerging ocean industries
Technological innovation is pivotal for driving emerging ocean industries towards being green, safe, and sustainable. The development of efficient offshore wind and solar energy technologies, along with advances in sensing, monitoring, and automated control systems, has significantly improved equipment safety in extreme ocean environments. Furthermore, intelligent management systems and precision extraction technologies are essential for the sustainable utilization of ocean resources. Given the numerous technical challenges involved in achieving these objectives, the development of emerging technologies requires substantial research and development (R&D) effort.
Scientific and technological advancements in ocean mapping have remarkably enhanced our understanding of marine resources. However, our current knowledge remains limited, particularly regarding the dynamic processes and interactions that occur in deep-sea and extreme environments. Sophisticated technologies, such as high-resolution sonar, remote sensing, and autonomous underwater vehicles, enable the precise mapping of seafloor and subsurface structures, allowing researchers to identify and assess resources, including mineral deposits and marine biodiversity hotspots. Nevertheless, ocean systems are inherently complex and highly variable, comprising multiscale physical processes and multiple oceanic fields, such as wind, waves, and currents, which are intricately coupled and often nonlinear [
28,
29]. The challenges associated with ocean data acquisition have led to insufficient observational capabilities, hindering our ability to fully capture the spatiotemporal evolution of oceanic features and the mechanisms that underpin deep-sea ecosystems. This lack of comprehensive understanding directly affects the development of emerging ocean industries, thereby increasing the risks and uncertainties associated with the exploration and utilization of ocean resources. The limited availability of key enabling technologies is a major contributing factor to these observed gaps. For example, developing networked marine systems that communicate over acoustic channels can dramatically improve the speed and accuracy of seabed mapping, facilitate the inspection of critical underwater infrastructure, and enhance studies on the water column and its resident biota. Additionally, pioneering new forms of energy supply are essential for supporting the prolonged operation of underwater robots, thereby extending the capacity for deep-sea exploration and continuous monitoring. By integrating advanced mapping technologies with enhanced observational efforts, we can improve our understanding of ocean dynamics and ecological systems, ultimately supporting the sustainable management of marine resources and growth of ocean industries.
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Numerous fundamental scientific issues remain unresolved, significantly hindering technological breakthroughs and practical applications. Key areas such as ocean dynamics and fluid-structure interactions still have substantial knowledge gaps, limiting the accuracy of predictions and modeling of ocean equipment behaviour. For instance, the complex dynamic responses and multiscale coupling effects in multibody floating systems are often difficult to capture using existing theories, affecting the design and safety assessment of ocean engineering structures [
30]. Experimental methods play a crucial role in addressing these challenges by providing direct observations and validation of theoretical models, enabling a deeper understanding of complex structural behaviour. However, when performing experiments for structures such as offshore wind turbines, whose viscous and gravitational forces are equally important to consider, there is a scientific challenge in resolving the scaling conflicts between the Reynolds and Froude numbers. In response, advanced experimental methods that can compensate for dual-scale effects are worthy developing [
31]. An important aspect of the intelligent use of experimental methods is their combination with numerical methods.
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The installation, operation, and maintenance technologies of emerging ocean industries remain underdeveloped, considerably limiting their application and growth in complex ocean environments. Because equipment is often deployed in deep and offshore areas, traditional installation and maintenance methods are not only costly but also extremely challenging under harsh conditions, such as strong winds and large waves [
32]. Regional marine characteristics further compound these challenges. For example, remotely operated vehicle inspections in turbid waters, such as the South China Sea, require enhanced acoustic navigation systems, whereas in the Baltic Sea, optical sensors dominate maintenance operations. Tidal patterns also impose divergent demands: The 16 m tidal range in the Bay of Fundy necessitates storm-resistant docking systems for maintenance vessels, in contrast to the microtidal Mediterranean Sea, where sediment accumulation becomes the primary concern. Several critical technologies still require development to bridge these gaps. For instance, the advancement of high-performance installation vessels and cutting-edge wind- and wave-resistant installation equipment is essential for improving the deployment efficiency and reliability under complex ocean conditions. Moreover, remote monitoring and automated maintenance technologies are not yet fully mature, making it difficult to detect and address equipment failures in a timely manner, thereby severely affecting the overall operational efficiency and economic viability. To achieve long-term stable operations in emerging ocean industries, there is an urgent need to develop and optimize intelligent maintenance and automated solutions suited to extreme ocean conditions.
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The design standards, design technologies, and equipment development for emerging ocean engineering structures remain incomplete. The current design framework for complex ocean structures requires further research into multiphysics field coupling effects, particularly regarding dynamic responses under extreme climatic conditions. Additionally, the next generation of digital design technologies has not yet been fully applied. Moreover, existing computer-aided design and virtual simulation methods require further advancement to satisfy the modeling and co-simulation requirements of new ocean engineering equipment, thereby supporting its efficient design and optimization for challenging ocean environments [
33].
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Societal constraints on ocean development are increasingly shaped by the triple planetary crisis, which encompasses climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution [
34]
. These interconnected challenges present significant scientific and technological hurdles that must be addressed to promote sustainable ocean management. Climate change leads to rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and altered marine ecosystems, complicating resource extraction and marine industry operations. The loss of biodiversity further exacerbates these challenges, as declining species populations disrupt ecological balance and reduce the resilience of marine environments. Pollution, particularly from plastics, chemicals, and nutrient runoff, poses additional threats to ocean health, complicating efforts to monitor and mitigate its environmental impacts. Current technologies often struggle to provide comprehensive data on the extent and effects of pollution, making it difficult to devise effective solutions. Moreover, societal attitudes and policies surrounding marine resource utilization can hinder technological innovation and implementation, as public concern for environmental degradation often clashes with economic interests. Addressing these societal constraints requires a concerted effort to integrate advanced technologies with robust environmental governance, ensuring that ocean development aligns with ecological sustainability and societal well-being.
3.4. Future of emerging ocean industries: Digitization and intelligence
Digital technology has already been applied to offshore oil and gas platforms and equipment monitoring, providing real-time feedback on operational status. Additionally, intelligent ocean observation buoys have enabled the automated collection and transmission of environmental data, supporting precise environmental monitoring and early-warning systems. In the future, emerging ocean industries will transcend current limitations through deeper technological integration, thereby unlocking unprecedented opportunities for humanity. The ocean will become an integral part of the global smart network, where enabling technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), digital twins, advanced sensors, and innovative materials, will revolutionize resource extraction and management.
Fig. 7 [
35] shows an example of a digital twin concept from design through operation. Unmanned systems, automated ships, and underwater robots will operate autonomously in extreme environments. While autonomy implies new hazards, when properly used, this technology is expected to significantly reduce risks and costs [
36].
Building on this digitized infrastructure, AI-driven solutions are now revolutionizing ocean engineering. Advanced AI models enhance the predictive capabilities of complex ocean processes, such as wave dynamics [
37] and fluid-structure interactions, while high-performance computing enables rapid, large-scale simulations for real-time environmental analysis and optimized engineering design. Advanced AI capabilities continue to play a complementary role by integrating intelligent data analytics, thereby improving operational reliability and efficiency in offshore operations [
38].
Two promising AI applications underscore this transformative potential. Physics-informed neural networks [
39] integrate fundamental physical laws into their frameworks, solving partial differential equations with greater computational efficiency and accuracy. They also benefit hydrodynamic modeling [
40], structural integrity assessments, and energy system optimization. Additionally, AI agents offer considerable potential in ocean engineering by processing vast amounts of sensor data, predicting environmental changes [
41] and autonomously adjusting system parameters to optimize marine operations. This enhances adaptive control in offshore platforms and improves real-time risk assessment through the development of language agents for physical agents. On the other hand, the use of digitalization, especially AI technologies, provides opportunities for interference with industry operations and societal functions, such as through sabotage, which needs to be addressed by preventive measures.
Beyond engineering, the integrated digital and intelligence revolution will transform the ocean into a viable habitat and resource hub. Floating cities and underwater research bases may offer creative solutions to population pressures, while ocean agriculture and biotechnology can leverage marine resources to address food security and healthcare challenges. By harnessing big data, climate models, and advanced environmental sensors, future ocean industries will not only optimize resource management and predict climate impacts on coastal areas but also play a critical role in global climate regulation, mitigating environmental changes, and protecting Earth’s ecosystems.
3.5. Potential of value creation and societal impact in ocean engineering
To fully realize the potential for value creation and employment within ocean engineering, several key initiatives are required. Investment in human capital is essential, focusing on developing a workforce with the appropriate skills and competencies to meet the demands of emerging sectors. This necessitates a boost in education and continued learning, supported by close collaboration with research and innovation efforts. As these sectors grow, many individuals are entering them with limited expertise in the unique technologies involved, highlighting the importance of specialized training. Furthermore, the development of both digital and physical laboratory infrastructure is crucial for fostering innovation and ensuring practical applications. Additionally, promoting openness for cooperation among various stakeholders—including governments, industries, society, and research institutions—is imperative. This collaboration, both nationally and internationally, can help align regulations, value creation, public interests, and the advancement of knowledge and competencies in ocean engineering.
Emerging ocean industries present both transformative opportunities and complex challenges for coastal communities and the global economy. Increasing ocean-based activities have increased the pressure on the health of marine ecosystems and ocean spaces. This leads to both political and public engagement. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Marine Spatial Planning Pact of 2023, mandating indigenous participation in offshore licensing decisions to prevent permit disputes, further illustrates how targeted policy frameworks can address social and economic disparities. The engagement of Greenpeace and many organizations concerned with climate challenges and pollution have executed many actions to stop the use of new ocean industries.
Advancing ocean literacy has become a cornerstone of global marine governance, transcending traditional academic boundaries through innovative public engagement models. Pioneering initiatives, such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)-endorsed Ocean Decade programmes [
42], exemplify this shift by bridging scientific research with grassroots participation through interactive citizen science projects that harness recreational marine devices for coastal data collection. Regional efforts have amplified this momentum, with coastal cities establishing technology-enhanced marine education hubs that integrate augmented reality simulations and participatory mapping tools, transforming students and residents into active ocean stewards. Such multidimensional approaches not only dissolve barriers between technical expertise and public understanding but also cultivate a new paradigm in which technological innovation and civic responsibility co-evolve to sustain ocean systems.
4. Conclusions and future perspectives
Realizing the significant potential for value creation in ocean utilization depends on strengthening the science-policy interface and leveraging the synergy between industry policies and competence building through research, education, and innovation. It also requires providing the necessary digital and physical laboratory infrastructure. To address the development demands of emerging ocean industries and the critical scientific and technological challenges related to ocean resource exploitation, environmental protection, and sustainable use, this study builds upon an in-depth understanding of the concepts, organizational planning, and scientific advancements of emerging ocean engineering systems. This understanding will drive innovation of ocean technologies and lead to the development of advanced technical frameworks capable of operating in extreme ocean environments. By employing novel technological approaches that reconcile resource utilization, environmental conservation, and economic viability, we aim to support the safe, efficient, and sustainable advancement of the ocean industries. This strategy not only addresses pressing global challenges, such as climate change and resource depletion, but also fosters the growth of the ocean economy, ensuring a long-term contribution to human welfare.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Huajun Li: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Data curation. Xinmeng Zeng: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Resources, Formal analysis. Torgeir Moan: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Validation, Supervision, Investigation. Kun Xu: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Validation, Investigation, Formal analysis.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52088102) and the Key R&D Program of Shandong Province, China (2021ZLGX04).
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