Critical Review of Nanomechanical Properties of Calcium (Alumino) Silicate Hydrates: Test Methods, Influencing Factors, and Enhancing Strategies

Jiawei Wang; Stuart McElhany; Zhangli Hu; Jiaping Liu; Carlo Carraro; Paulo J.M. Monteiro; Roya Maboudian

doi:10.1016/j.eng.2025.11.015

Engineering ›› :202511015 DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2025.11.015

Research

research-article

Critical Review of Nanomechanical Properties of Calcium (Alumino) Silicate Hydrates: Test Methods, Influencing Factors, and Enhancing Strategies

Author information +

History +

PDF (5116KB)

Abstract

The mechanical properties of calcium (alumino) silicate hydrates (C-(A)-S-H) represent a critical focus within the cement and concrete industry. This review begins by summarizing particle-and subparticle-scale models of C-(A)-S-H. Building on these models, the effects of chemical composition and microstructure on the intrinsic mechanical properties of C-(A)-S-H, as determined by high-pressure X-ray diffraction, are described. Existing studies have demonstrated that increasing the Ca/Si ratio and Al incorporation enhances the intrinsic mechanical properties of C-(A)-S-H. Advanced techniques, such as high-pressure Raman spectroscopy and synchrotron radiation-based techniques, have been employed to elucidate the origins of intralayer sliding and preferred intragranular orientation, offering insights into the fundamental mechanisms of creep. Compared with intralayer sliding, the preferred intragranular orientation of cement-based materials significantly contributes to creep in C-(-A)-S-H, establishing a direct link to macroscopic creep behavior. Based on these findings, this review summarizes several “bottom-up” strategies for strengthening and toughening C-(A)-S-H.

Keywords

Nanomechanical properties / Preferred orientation / Sliding / Enhancing strategies

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Jiawei Wang, Stuart McElhany, Zhangli Hu, Jiaping Liu, Carlo Carraro, Paulo J.M. Monteiro, Roya Maboudian. Critical Review of Nanomechanical Properties of Calcium (Alumino) Silicate Hydrates: Test Methods, Influencing Factors, and Enhancing Strategies. Engineering 202511015 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2025.11.015

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	Hu Z, Hilaire A, Wyrzykowski M, Lura P, Scrivener K. Visco-elastic behavior of blended cement pastes at early ages. Cement Concr Compos 2020; 107:103497.

[2]	Vandamme M, Ulm FJ. Nanogranular origin of concrete creep. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106(26):10552-7.

[3]	Hu Z, Wyrzykowski M, Griffa M, Scrivener K, Lura P. Young’s modulus and creep of calcium-silicate-hydrate compacts measured by microindentation. Cement Concr Res 2020; 134:106104.

[4]	Yang G, Wang J, Li H, Yao T, Wang Y, Hu Z, et al. Creep behavior of self-compacting rubberized concrete at early age. J Mater Civ Eng 2022; 34(3):04021474.

[5]	Wang J, Hu Z, Chen Y, Huang J, Ma Y, Zhu W, et al. Effect of Ca/Si and Al/Si on micromechanical properties of C(-A)-S-H. Cement Concr Res 2022; 157:106811.

[6]	Wang J, Ding S, Du F, Tang J, Liao J, Deng L, et al. Interaction between calcium hydroxide and calcium-alumino-silicate-hydrate on micromechanical properties. Constr Build Mater 2024; 449:138321.

[7]	Zhang Z, Yan Y, Qu Z, Geng G. Endowing strength to calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) powder by high pressure mechanical compaction. Cement Concr Res 2022; 159:106858.

[8]	Wang J, Gao C, Tang J, Hu Z, Liu J. The multi-scale mechanical properties of calcium-silicate-hydrate. Cement Concr Compos 2023; 140:105097.

[9]	Chen JJ, Sorelli L, Vandamme M, Ulm FJ, Chanvillard G. A coupled Nanoindentation/SEM-EDS study on low water/cement ratio Portland cement paste: evidence for C-S-H/Ca(OH)₂ Nanocomposites. J Am Ceram Soc 2010; 93(5):1484-93.

[10]	Davydov D, Jirásek M, Kopecký L. Critical aspects of nano-indentation technique in application to hardened cement paste. Cement Concr Res 2011; 41(1):20-9.

[11]	Frech-Baronet J, Sorelli L, Chen Z. Effect of plasticity on the experimental characterization of the creep property of a cement paste: spherical vs. conical microindentation. Cement Concr Res 2021; 141:106290.

[12]	Hay R, Li J, Celik K. Influencing factors on micromechanical properties of calcium (alumino) silicate hydrate C-(A-)S-H under nanoindentation experiment. Cement Concr Res 2020; 134:106088.

[13]	Trtik P, Kaufmann J, Volz U. On the use of peak-force tapping atomic force microscopy for quantification of the local elastic modulus in hardened cement paste. Cement Concr Res 2012; 42(1):215-21.

[14]	Asgari H, Ramezanianpour AA, Butt HJ. Nano-mechanical behavior of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide in cement paste: elevated peak-force study. Int J Civ Eng 2018; 16(3):273-80.

[15]	Ruiz-Cabello FJM, Trefalt G, Csendes Z, Sinha P, Oncsik T, Szilagyi I, et al. Predicting aggregation rates of colloidal particles from direct force measurements. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117(39):11853-62.

[16]	Yang T, Holzer L, Kagi R, Winnefeld F, Keller B. In situ nanomanipulators as a tool to separate individual tobermorite crystals for AFM studies. Ultramicroscopy 2007; 107(10-11):1068-77.

[17]	Li J, Zhang W, Monteiro PJM. Preferred orientation of calcium aluminosilicate hydrate compacts: implications for creep and indentation. Cement Concr Res 2021; 143:106371.

[18]	Li J, Zhang W, Monteiro PJM. Structure and intrinsic mechanical properties of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrate. ACS Sustain Chem & Eng 2020; 8(33):12453-61.

[19]	Li J, Zhang W, Garbev K, Beuchle G, Monteiro PJM. Influences of cross-linking and Al incorporation on the intrinsic mechanical properties of tobermorite. Cement Concr Res 2020; 136:106170.

[20]	Geng G, Myers RJ, Qomi MJA, Monteiro PJM. Densification of the interlayer spacing governs the nanomechanical properties of calcium-silicate-hydrate. Sci Rep 2017; 7(1):10986.

[21]	Geng G, Myers RJ, Li J, Maboudian R, Carraro C, Shapiro DA, et al. Aluminum-induced dreierketten chain cross-links increase the mechanical properties of nanocrystalline calcium aluminosilicate hydrate. Sci Rep 2017; 7(1):44032.

[22]	Geng G, Vasin RN, Li J, Qomi MJA, Yan J, Wenk HR, et al. Preferred orientation of calcium aluminosilicate hydrate induced by confined compression. Cement Concr Res 2018; 113:186-96.

[23]	Monteiro PJM, Geng G, Marchon D, Li J, Alapati P, Kurtis KE, et al. Advances in characterizing and understanding the microstructure of cementitious materials. Cement Concr Res 2019; 124:105806.

[24]	Yang R, Li J. Probing the intrinsic mechanical properties of artinite using high-pressure X-ray diffraction for reactive MgO cement. Cement Concr Res 2025; 194:107894.

[25]	Li J, Zhang W, Monteiro PJM. Mechanical properties of struvite-K: a high-pressure X-ray diffraction study. Cement Concr Res 2020; 136:106171.

[26]	Qoku E, Xu K, Li J, Monteiro PJM, Kurtis KE. Advances in imaging, scattering, spectroscopy, and machine learning-aided approaches for multiscale characterization of cementitious systems. Cement Concr Res 2023; 174:107335.

[27]	Hu Z, Hilaire A, Ston J, Wyrzykowski M, Lura P, Scrivener K. Intrinsic viscoelasticity of C-S-H assessed from basic creep of cement pastes. Cement Concr Res 2019; 121:11-20.

[28]	Nguyen DT, Alizadeh R, Beaudoin JJ, Raki L. Microindentation creep of secondary hydrated cement phases and C-S-H. Mater Struct 2012; 46(9):1519-25.

[29]	Plassard C, Lesniewska E, Pochard I, Nonat A. Investigation of the surface structure and elastic properties of calcium silicate hydrates at the nanoscale. Ultramicroscopy 2004; 100(3-4):331-8.

[30]	Thomas JJ, Jennings HM, Allen AJ. Relationships between composition and density of tobermorite, jennite, and nanoscale CaO-SiO₂-H₂O. J Phys Chem C Nanomater Interfaces 2010; 114(17):7594-601.

[31]	Shahsavari R, Buehler MJ, Pellenq RJM, Ulm FJ. First-principles study of elastic constants and interlayer interactions of complex hydrated oxides: case study of tobermorite and jennite. J Am Ceram Soc 2009; 92(10):2323-30.

[32]	Pelisser F, Gleize PJP, Mikowski A. Effect of the Ca/Si molar ratio on the micro/nanomechanical properties of synthetic C-S-H measured by nanoindentation. J Phys Chem C Nanomater Interfaces 2012; 116(32):17219-27.

[33]	Alizadeh R, Beaudoin JJ, Raki L. Mechanical properties of calcium silicate hydrates. Mater Struct 2011; 44(1):13-28.

[34]	Pourbeik P, Beaudoin JJ, Alizadeh R, Raki L. Mechanical property-porosity relationships of layered calcium silicate hydrate phases. Mater Struct 2013; 46(9):1489-95.

[35]	Abdolhosseini Qomi MJ, Krakowiak KJ, Bauchy M, Stewart KL, Shahsavari R, Jagannathan D, et al. Combinatorial molecular optimization of cement hydrates. Nat Commun 2014; 5(1):4960.

[36]	Manzano H, Dolado J, Ayuela A. Elastic properties of the main species present in Portland cement pastes. Acta Mater 2009; 57(5):1666-74.

[37]	Dharmawardhana CC, Misra A, Aryal S, Rulis P, Ching WY. Role of interatomic bonding in the mechanical anisotropy and interlayer cohesion of CSH crystals. Cem Concr Res 2013; 52:123-30.

[38]	Zhang Y, Guo L, Shi J, Luo Q, Jiang J, Hou D. Full process of calcium silicate hydrate decalcification: molecular structure, dynamics, and mechanical properties. Cem Concr Res 2022; 161:106964.

[39]	Yaphary YL, Lau D, Sanchez F, Poon CS. Effects of sodium/calcium cation exchange on the mechanical properties of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). Constr Build Mater 2020; 243:118283.

[40]	Liu L, Sun C, Geng G, Feng P, Li J, Dähn R. Influence of decalcification on structural and mechanical properties of synthetic calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). Cem Concr Res 2019; 123:105793.

[41]	Zhu X, Richardson IG. Morphology-structural change of C-A-S-H gel in blended cements. Cem Concr Res 2023; 168:107156.

[42]	Harris M, Simpson G, Scrivener K, Bowen P. A method for the reliable and reproducible precipitation of phase pure high Ca/Si ratio (> 1.5) synthetic calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H). Cem Concr Res 2022; 151:106623.

[43]	L’Hôpital E, Lothenbach B, Kulik D, Scrivener K. Influence of calcium to silica ratio on aluminium uptake in calcium silicate hydrate. Cem Concr Res 2016; 85:111-21.

[44]	Wilson W, Sorelli L, Tagnit-Hamou A. Unveiling micro-chemo-mechanical properties of C-(A)-S-H and other phases in blended-cement pastes. Cem Concr Res 2018; 107:317-36.

[45]	Li J, Zhang W, Sanz-Camacho P, Duttine M, Gardner D, Carraro C, et al. The nanomechanical properties of non-crosslinked calcium aluminosilicate hydrate: the influences of tetrahedral Al and curing age. Cem Concr Res 2022; 159:106900.

[46]	Ye H. Creep mechanisms of Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate: an overview of recent advances and challenges. Int J Concr Struct Mater 2015; 9(4):453-62.

[47]	Alizadeh R, Beaudoin JJ, Raki L. Viscoelastic nature of calcium silicate hydrate. Cem Concr Compos 2010; 32(5):369-76.

[48]	Gardner DW, Li J, Kunz M, Zhu C, Monteiro PJM, Maboudian R, et al. Plastic deformation mechanism of calcium-silicate hydrates determined by deviatoric-stress Raman spectroscopy. Cem Concr Res 2021; 146:106476.

[49]	Pignatelli I, Kumar A, Alizadeh R, Le Pape Y, Bauchy M, Sant G. A dissolution-precipitation mechanism is at the origin of concrete creep in moist environments. J Chem Phys 2016; 145(5):054701.

[50]	Wyrzykowski M, Scrivener K, Lura P. Basic creep of cement paste at early age-the role of cement hydration. Cem Concr Res 2019; 116:191-201.

[51]	Tamtsia BT, Beaudoin JJ, Marchand J. The early age short-term creep of hardening cement paste: load-induced hydration effects. Cem Concr Compos 2004; 26(5):481-9.

[52]	Bisschop J. Does applied stress affect Portland cement hydration? In: Proceedings of the 13th International Congress Chemistry Cement; 2011 Jul 3-8; Madrid, Spain. Duesseldorf: ICCC Permanent Secretariat; 2011. p. 3-8.

[53]	Tang J, Gao C, Li Y, Xu J, Huang J, Xu D, et al. A review on multi-scale toughening and regulation methods for modern concrete: from theory to practical engineering application. Research 2024; 7:0518.

[54]	de Souza FB, Shamsaei E, Chen SJ, Sagoe-Crentsil K, Duan WH. Controlled growth and ordering of poorly-crystalline calcium-silicate-hydrate nanosheets. Commun Mater 2021; 2:84.

[55]	Hartgerink JD, Beniash E, Stupp SI. Self-assembly and mineralization of peptide-amphiphile nanofibers. Science 2001; 294(5547):1684-8.

[56]	Gao HL, Chen SM, Mao LB, Song ZQ, Yao HB, Cölfen H, et al. Mass production of bulk artificial nacre with excellent mechanical properties. Nat Commun 2017; 8:287.

[57]	Picker A, Nicoleau L, Burghard Z, Bill J, Zlotnikov I, Labbez C, et al. Mesocrystalline calcium silicate hydrate: a bioinspired route toward elastic concrete materials. Sci Adv 2017; 3(4):e1701216.

[58]	Han B, Zhang L, Zeng S, Dong S, Yu X, Yang R, et al. Nano-core effect in nano-engineered cementitious composites. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 2017; 95:100-9.

[59]	Wang X, Dong S, Li Z, Han B, Ou J. Nanomechanical characteristics of interfacial transition zone in nano-engineered concrete. Engineering 2022; 17:99-109.

[60]	Wang J, Han B, Li Z, Yu X, Dong X. Effect investigation of nanofillers on C-S-H gel structure with Si NMR. J Mater Civ Eng 2019; 31(8):04018352.

[61]	Zhou Y, Orozco CA, Duque-Redondo E, Manzano H, Geng G, Feng P, et al. Modification of poly(ethylene glycol) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of calcium silicate hydrates. Cem Concr Res 2019; 115:20-30.

[62]	Zhou Y, Tang L, Liu J, Miao C. Interaction mechanisms between organic and inorganic phases in calcium silicate hydrates/poly(vinyl alcohol) composites. Cem Concr Res 2019; 125:105891.

[63]	Wang P, Qiao G, Guo Y, Zhang Y, Hou D, Jin Z, et al. Molecular dynamics simulation of the interfacial bonding properties between graphene oxide and calcium silicate hydrate. Constr Build Mater 2020; 260:119927.

[64]	Gao Y, Jing HW, Wu JY, Fu GP, Feng CD, Chen WQ. Molecular dynamics study on the influence of graphene oxide on the tensile behavior of calcium silicate hydrate composites. Mater Chem Phys 2022; 292:126793.

[65]	Li Y, Li H, Wang Z, Jin C. Effect and mechanism analysis of functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on C-S-H gel. Cem Concr Res 2020; 128:105955.

[66]	Qin R, Zhou A, Yu Z, Wang Q, Lau D. Role of carbon nanotube in reinforcing cementitious materials: an experimental and coarse-grained molecular dynamics study. Cem Concr Res 2021; 147:106517.

[67]	Li J. Municipal solid waste incineration ash-incorporated concrete: one step towards environmental justice. Buildings 2021; 11(11):495.

[68]	Jennings HM. Colloid model of C-S-H and implications to the problem of creep and shrinkage. Mater Struct 2004; 37(265):59-70.

[69]	Jennings HM. Refinements to colloid model of C-S-H in cement: CM-II. Cem Concr Res 2008; 38(3):275-89.

[70]	Jennings HM. A model for the microstructure of calcium silicate hydrate in cement paste. Cem Concr Res 2000; 30(1):101-16.

[71]	Richardson IG. The calcium silicate hydrates. Cem Concr Res 2008; 38:137-58.

[72]	Kunhi Mohamed A, Moutzouri P, Berruyer P, Walder BJ, Siramanont J, Harris M, et al. The atomic-level structure of cementitious calcium aluminate silicate hydrate. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142(25):11060-71.

[73]	Taylor HFW. Cement chemistry. 2nd ed. London: Thomas Telford Publishing; 1997.

[74]

Richardson IG. Tobermorite/jennite-and tobermorite/calcium hydroxide-based models for the structure of C-S-H: applicability to hardened pastes of tricalcium silicate, β-dicalcium silicate, Portland cement, and blends of Portland cement with blast-furnace slag, metakaolin, or silica fume. Cem Concr Res 2004; 34(9):1733-77.

[75]	Pardal X, Brunet F, Charpentier T, Pochard I, Nonat A. ²⁷Al and ²⁹Si solid-state NMR characterization of calcium-aluminosilicate-hydrate. Inorg Chem 2012; 51(3):1827-36.

[76]	Kumar A, Walder BJ, Kunhi Mohamed A, Hofstetter A, Srinivasan B, Rossini AJ, et al. The atomic-level structure of cementitious calcium silicate hydrate. J Phys Chem C 2017; 121(32):17188-96.

[77]	Myers RJ, Bernal SA, San Nicolas R, Provis JL. Generalized structural description of calcium-sodium aluminosilicate hydrate gels: the cross-linked substituted tobermorite model. Langmuir 2013; 29(17):5294-306.

[78]	Myers RJ, Bernal SA, Gehman JD, van Deventer JSJ, Provis JL, Struble L. The role of Al in cross-linking of alkali-activated slag cements. J Am Ceram Soc 2015; 98(4):996-1004.

[79]	Ortaboy S, Li J, Geng G, Myers RJ, Monteiro PJM, Maboudian R, et al. Effects of CO₂ and temperature on the structure and chemistry of C-(A-)S-H investigated by Raman spectroscopy. RSC Adv 2017; 7(77):48925-33.

[80]	Myers RJ, L’Hôpital E, Provis JL, Lothenbach B. Effect of temperature and aluminium on calcium (alumino) silicate hydrate chemistry under equilibrium conditions. Cem Concr Res 2015; 68:83-93.

[81]	L’Hôpital E, Lothenbach B, Le Saout G, Kulik D, Scrivener K. Incorporation of aluminium in calcium-silicate-hydrates. Cem Concr Res 2015; 75:91-103.

[82]	Renaudin G, Russias J, Leroux F, Frizon F, Cau-dit-Coumes C. Structural characterization of C-S-H and C-A-S-H samples—part I: long-range order investigated by Rietveld analyses. J Solid State Chem 2009; 182(12):3312-9.

[83]	Powers TC, Brownyard TL. Studies of the physical properties of hardened Portland cement paste. ACI J Proc 1946; 43(9):101-32.

[84]	Feldman RF, Sereda PJ. A new model for hydrated Portland cement and its practical implications. Eng J 1970; 53(8):53-9.

[85]	Wittmann F. The structure of hardened cement paste—a basis for a better understanding of the materials properties. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Hydraulic Cement Pastes: Their Structure and Properties; 1976 Apr 8-9; Sheffield, UK. Slough: Cement and Concrete Association; 1976. p. 96-117.

[86]	Muller ACA, Scrivener KL, Gajewicz AM, McDonald PJ. Densification of C-S-H measured by ¹H NMR relaxometry. J Phys Chem C 2012; 117(1):403-12.

[87]	Matsuyama H, Young JF. Effects of pH on precipitation of quasi-crystalline calcium silicate hydrate in aqueous solution. Adv Cem Res 2000; 12(2):29-33.

[88]	Richardson IG. Model structures for C-(A)-S-H(I). Acta Crystallogr B Struct Sci Cryst Eng Mater 2014; 70(Pt 6):903-23.

[89]	Geng G, Myers RJ, Yu YS, Shapiro DA, Winarski R, Levitz PE, et al. Synchrotron X-ray nanotomographic and spectromicroscopic study of the tricalcium aluminate hydration in the presence of gypsum. Cem Concr Res 2018; 111:130-7.

[90]	Li J, Geng G, Myers R, Yu YS, Shapiro D, Carraro C, et al. The chemistry and structure of calcium (alumino) silicate hydrate: a study by XANES, ptychographic imaging, and wide-and small-angle scattering. Cem Concr Res 2019; 115:367-78.

[91]	Geng G, Li J, Zhou Y, Liu L, Yan J, Kunz M, et al. A high-pressure X-ray diffraction study of the crystalline phases in calcium aluminate cement paste. Cem Concr Res 2018; 108:38-45.

[92]	Kantor I, Prakapenka V, Kantor A, Dera P, Kurnosov A, Sinogeikin S, et al. BX90: a new diamond anvil cell design for X-ray diffraction and optical measurements. Rev Sci Instrum 2012; 83(12):125102.

[93]	Zhang W, Li J. The intrinsic mechanical properties of hydromagnesite, Mg₅(CO₃)₄(OH)₂·4H₂O, a key phase of reactive MgO carbonate cement. Cem Concr Res 2024; 177:107410.

[94]	Prescher C, Prakapenka VB. DIOPTAS: a program for reduction of two-dimensional X-ray diffraction data and data exploration. High Press Res 2015; 35(3):223-30.

[95]	Cheary RW, Coelho AA. Programs XFIT and FOURYA, deposited in CCP14 powder diffraction library. Warrington: Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Daresbury Laboratory; 1996.

[96]	Laugier J, Bochu B. Computer code CELREF. Version 3. Cell parameter refinement program from powder diffraction diagram. Paris: Laboratoire des Matériaux et du Génie Physique (LMGP), Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Physique de Grenoble (INPG); 2002.

[97]	Birch F. Elasticity and constitution of the Earth’s interior. J Geophys Res 1952; 57(2):227-86.

[98]	Kalousek GL, Prebus AF. Crystal chemistry of hydrous calcium silicates: III, morphology and other properties of tobermorite and related phases. J Am Ceram Soc 1958; 41(4):124-32.

[99]	Yang J, Hou D, Ding Q. Structure, dynamics, and mechanical properties of cross-linked calcium aluminosilicate hydrate: a molecular dynamics study. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2018; 6(8):9403-17.

[100]

Zhang G, Li Y, Yang J, Ding Q, Sun D. Insight into the strengthening mechanism of the Al-induced cross-linked calcium aluminosilicate hydrate gel: a molecular dynamics study. Front Mater 2021; 7:484.

[101]

Gardner DW, Li J, Kunz M, Liao WC, Zhu C, Carraro C, et al. Uniaxial stress increases layer stacking disorder in calcium silicate hydrates with low calcium content. Acta Mater 2023; 246:118726.

[102]

Gardner DW, Li J, Morshedifard A, Masoumi S, Abdolhosseini Qomi MJ, Monteiro PJM, et al. Silicate bond characteristics in calcium-silicate-hydrates determined by high pressure Raman spectroscopy. J Phys Chem C 2020; 124(33):18335-45.

[103]

Chai M, Brown JM. Effects of static non-hydrostatic stress on the R lines of ruby single crystals. Geophys Res Lett 1996; 23(23):3539-42.

[104]

Wang J, Yang R, Sanz-Camacho P, Duttine M, Huthwelker T, Li J. Aluminum incorporation lowers the intrinsic mechanical properties of single-chain calcium silicate hydrate. Cem Concr Res 2026; 199:108026.

[105]

Yan Y, Yang SY, Miron GD, Collings IE, L’Hôpital E, Skibsted J, et al. Effect of alkali hydroxide on calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). Cem Concr Res 2022; 151:106636.

[106]

Kirkpatrick RJ, Yarger JL, McMillan PF, Ping Y, Cong X. Raman spectroscopy of C-S-H, tobermorite, and jennite. Adv Cem Bas Mat 1997; 5(3-4):93-9.

[107]

Li J, Zhang W. Preferred orientation of calcium silicate hydrate and its implication to concrete creep. Compos B Eng 2022; 247:110297.

[108]

Georget F, Wilson W, Scrivener KL. edxia: Microstructure characterisation from quantified SEM-EDS hypermaps. Cem Concr Res 2021; 141:106327.

[109]

Krakowiak KJ, Wilson W, James S, Musso S, Ulm FJ. Inference of the phase-to-mechanical property link via coupled X-ray spectrometry and indentation analysis: application to cement-based materials. Cem Concr Res 2015; 67:271-85.

[110]

Mejdi M, Wilson W, Saillio M, Chaussadent T, Divet L, Tagnit-Hamou A. Quantifying glass powder reaction in blended-cement pastes with the Rietveld-PONKCS method. Cem Concr Res 2020; 130:105999.

[111]

Wilson W, Rivera-Torres JM, Sorelli L, Durán-Herrera A, Tagnit-Hamou A. The micromechanical signature of high-volume natural pozzolan concrete by combined statistical nanoindentation and SEM-EDS analyses. Cem Concr Res 2017; 91:1-12.

[112]

Gao H, Shikhov I, Hamed E, Hajimohammadi A, Al-Damad I, Arns C, et al. New insights on the basic creep mechanism of one-part alkali activated slag and fly ash paste. Cem Concr Res 2024; 186:107691.

[113]

Wang JW, Kalinichev AG, Kirkpatrick RJ, Hou XQ. Molecular modeling of the structure and energetics of hydrotalcite hydration. Chem Mater 2001; 13(1):145-50.

[114]

Basahel SN, Al-Thabaiti SA, Narasimharao K, Ahmed NS, Mokhtar M. Nanostructured Mg-Al hydrotalcite as catalyst for fine chemical synthesis. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 2014; 14(2):1931-46.

[115]

López-Muñoz BE, Iturbe-García JL, Olguin MT. Physicochemical properties of layered double hydroxides by-product obtained from Al-MgO mechanochemical process to produce hydrogen. Chem Pap 2018; 73(2):415-24.

[116]

Li J. Characterization of calcium (alumino) silicate hydrate phases with synchrotron-based techniques [dissertation]. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley; 2019.

[117]

Li J, Zheng Q. The first experimental evidence for improved nanomechanical properties of calcium silicate hydrate by polycarboxylate ether and graphene oxide. Cem Concr Res 2022; 156:106787.

[118]

Han B, Ding S, Wang J, Ou J. Nano-engineered cementitious composites: principles and practices. Berlin: Springer; 2019.