Path to Carbon Neutrality in Wastewater Treatment—From Energy Optimisation to Resource Recovery

Bohan Yu; Eveline I.P. Volcke; Xiaodi Hao; Mark C.M. van Loosdrecht

doi:10.1016/j.eng.2025.12.005

Engineering ›› :202512005 DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2025.12.005

Research

research-article

Path to Carbon Neutrality in Wastewater Treatment—From Energy Optimisation to Resource Recovery

Author information +

History +

PDF (778KB)

Abstract

Related to the global efforts to minimize climate change, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) face increasing pressure to minimize energy use and achieve carbon neutrality. This requires a multifaceted approach: First, energy consumption must be minimized through enhanced energy efficiency in existing WWTPs and the adoption of low-carbon technologies, such as anammox-based processes, aerobic granular sludge, and membrane aerated biofilm reactors. Second, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, particularly nitrous oxide, is as critical as improving energy efficiency. Third, energy recovery should extend beyond conventional methods like anaerobic digestion or sludge incineration to include harnessing effluent heat from treated wastewater. Finally, resource recovery—encompassing nitrogen, phosphorus, and biopolymers—offers greater societal value than energy independence alone. This article critically reviews strategic pathways to achieving carbon neutrality in wastewater treatment, which brings together energy efficiency, greenhouse gas emissions, and energy and resource recovery within a single framework.

Keywords

Wastewater treatment / Carbon neutrality / Energy efficiency / Energy recovery / Resource recovery

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Bohan Yu, Eveline I.P. Volcke, Xiaodi Hao, Mark C.M. van Loosdrecht. Path to Carbon Neutrality in Wastewater Treatment—From Energy Optimisation to Resource Recovery. Engineering 202512005 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2025.12.005

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	Song C, Zhu J, Yuan Z, van Loosdrecht MCM, Ren ZJ. Defining and achieving net-zero emissions in the wastewater sector. Nat Water 2024; 2(10):927-35.

[2]	World Resources Institute and World Business Council for Sustainable Development. The greenhouse gas protocol: a corporate accounting and reporting standard. Revised ed. Washington, DC: WRI and WBCSD; 2004.

[3]	Kampschreur MJ, Temmink H, Kleerebezem R, Jetten MSM, van Loosdrecht MCM. Nitrous oxide emission during wastewater treatment. Water Res 2009; 43(17):4093-103.

[4]	Maktabifard M, Al-Hazmi HE, Szulc P, Mousavizadegan M, Xu X, Zaborowska E, et al. Net-zero carbon condition in wastewater treatment plants: a systematic review of mitigation strategies and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2023; 185:113638.

[5]	Daelman MRJ, van Voorthuizen EM, Volcke EIP, van Loosdrecht MCM. Methane emission during municipal wastewater treatment. Water Res 2012; 46(11):3657-70.

[6]	Adhikari S, Halden RU. Opportunities and limits of wastewater-based epidemiology for tracking global health and attainment of UN sustainable development goals. Environ Int 2022; 163:107217.

[7]	Gu Y, Li Y, Li X, Luo P, Wang H, Robinson ZP, et al. The feasibility and challenges of energy self-sufficient wastewater treatment plants. Appl Energy 2017; 204:1463-75.

[8]	Åmand L, Olsson G, Carlsson B. Aeration control-a review. Water Sci Technol 2013; 67(11):2374-98.

[9]	Drewnowski J, Remiszewska-Skwarek A, Duda S, Łagód G. Aeration process in bioreactors as the main energy consumer in a wastewater treatment plant. review of solutions and methods of process optimization. Processes 2019; 7(5):311.

[10]	Johnson H, Simon K, Slocum A. Improving the design life cycle efficiency of wastewater treatment plant inflow pumps. In:Proceedings of the Advanced Energy and Environmental Sustainability Conference; 2020 Aug 12-14; Cambridge, MA, USA. Cambridge: Energy Proceedings; 2020.

[11]	Kartal B, Kuenen JG, van Loosdrecht MCM. Sewage treatment with anammox. Science 2010; 328(5979):702-3.

[12]	Lackner S, Gilbert EM, Vlaeminck SE, Joss A, Horn H, van Loosdrecht MCM. Full-scale partial nitritation/anammox experiences-an application survey. Water Res 2014; 55:292-303.

[13]	Driessen W, Hendrickx T. Two decades of experience with the granular sludge-based ANAMMOX^® process treating municipal and industrial effluents. Processes 2021; 9(7):1207.

[14]	Cao Y, van Loosdrecht MCM, Daigger GT. Mainstream partial nitritation-anammox in municipal wastewater treatment: status, bottlenecks, and further studies. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101(4):1365-83.

[15]	Yuan Q, He B, Qian L, Qian L, Littleton H, Daigger GT, et al. Role of air scouring in anaerobic/anoxic tanks providing nitrogen removal by mainstream anammox conversion in a hybrid biofilm/suspended growth full-scale WWTP in China. Water Environ Res 2021; 93(10):2198-209.

[16]	Ran X, Wang T, Zhou M, Li Z, Wang H, Tsybekmitova GT, et al. A novel perspective on the instability of mainstream partial nitritation: the niche differentiation of nitrifying guilds. Environ Sci Technol 2025; 59(18):8922-38.

[17]	Lotti T, Kleerebezem R, van Loosdrecht MCM. Effect of temperature change on anammox activity. Biotechnol Bioeng 2015; 112(1):98-103.

[18]	Hoekstra M, Geilvoet SP, Hendrickx TLG, van Erp Taalman Kip CS, Kleerebezem R, van Loosdrecht MCM. Towards mainstream anammox: lessons learned from pilot-scale research at WWTP Dokhaven. Environ Technol 2019; 40(13):1721-33.

[19]	Wang L, Gu W, Liu Y, Liang P, Zhang X, Huang X. Challenges, solutions and prospects of mainstream anammox-based process for municipal wastewater treatment. Sci Total Environ 2022; 820:153351.

[20]	Gong H, Jin Z, Xu H, Yuan Q, Zou J, Wu J, et al. Enhanced membrane-based pre-concentration improves wastewater organic matter recovery: pilot-scale performance and membrane fouling. J Clean Prod 2019; 206:307-14.

[21]	Belloir C, Stanford C, Soares A. Energy benchmarking in wastewater treatment plants: the importance of site operation and layout. Environ Technol 2015; 36(2):260-9.

[22]	Li W, Li L, Qiu G. Energy consumption and economic cost of typical wastewater treatment systems in Shenzhen, China. J Clean Prod 2017; 163:S374-8.

[23]	Sarpong G, Gude VG. Near future energy self-sufficient wastewater treatment schemes. Int J Environ Res 2020; 14(4):479-88.

[24]	Yin X, Li W, Zhang M, Du R, Chen C. Advances in anammox process for municipal wastewater treatment plants: a review focusing on applied study and full-scale implementation cases. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 2025; 55(13):1001-24.

[25]	Du R, Cao S, Zhang H, Li X, Peng Y. Flexible nitrite supply alternative for mainstream anammox: advances in enhancing process stability. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54(10):6353-64.

[26]	Ekholm J, De Blois M, Persson F, Gustavsson DJI, Bengtsson S, van Erp T, et al. Case study of aerobic granular sludge and activated sludge—energy usage, footprint, and nutrient removal. Water Environ Res 2023; 95(8):e10914.

[27]	Shechter R. Energy efficiency and performance of a full scale membrane aerated biofilm reactor.In:Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation; 2015 Sep 26-30; Chicago, IL USA. Alexandria: Water Environment Federation (WEF); 2015.

[28]	Pronk M, de Kreuk MK, De Bruin B, Kamminga P, Kleerebezem R, van Loosdrecht MCM. Full scale performance of the aerobic granular sludge process for sewage treatment. Water Res 2015; 84:207-17.

[29]	van Dijk EJH, Pronk M, van Loosdrecht MCM. Controlling effluent suspended solids in the aerobic granular sludge process. Water Res 2018; 147:50-9.

[30]	Winkler MKH, van Loosdrecht MCM. Intensifying existing urban wastewater. Science 2022; 375(6579):377-8.

[31]	Haaksman VA, van Dijk EJH, Al-Zuhairy S, Mulders M, van Loosdrecht MCM, Pronk M. Utilizing anaerobic substrate distribution for growth of aerobic granular sludge in continuous-flow reactors. Water Res 2024; 257:121531.

[32]	Strubbe L, Pennewaerde M, Baeten J, Volcke EIP. Continuous aerobic granular sludge plants: better settling versus diffusion limitation. Chem Eng J 2022; 428:131427.

[33]	Lu D, Bai H, Kong F, Liss SN, Liao B. Recent advances in membrane aerated biofilm reactors. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 2021; 51(7):649-703.

[34]	Li J, Wang Z, Wang Y. Integrating membrane aerated biofilm reactors with biological nitrogen removal processes: a new paradigm for achieving sustainable wastewater treatment plants. Chem Eng J 2023; 475:146025.

[35]	Dicataldo G, Desmond P, Al-maas M, Adham S. Feasibility and application of membrane aerated biofilm reactors for industrial wastewater treatment. Water Res 2025; 280:123523.

[36]	Werkneh AA. Application of membrane-aerated biofilm reactor in removing water and wastewater pollutants: current advances, knowledge gaps and research needs-a review. Environ Chall 2022; 8:100529.

[37]	Ye L, Porro J, Nopens I. Quantification and modelling of fugitive greenhouse gas emissions from urban water systems. London: IWA Publishing; 2022.

[38]	Daelman MRJ, van Voorthuizen EM, Volcke EIP, van Loosdrecht MCM. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from municipal wastewater treatment-results from a long-term study. Water Sci Technol 2013; 67(10):2350-5.

[39]	Kelessidis A, Stasinakis AS. Comparative study of the methods used for treatment and final disposal of sewage sludge in European countries. Waste Manag 2012; 32(6):1186-95.

[40]	Daelman MRJ, van Eynde T, van Loosdrecht MCM, Volcke EIP. Effect of process design and operating parameters on aerobic methane oxidation in municipal WWTPs. Water Res 2014; 66:308-19.

[41]	Conthe M, Lycus P, Arntzen MØ, da Silva AR, Frostegård Å, Bakken LR, et al. Denitrification as an N₂O sink. Water Res 2019; 151:381-7.

[42]	Lin Z, Ma K, Yang Y. Nitrous oxide emission from full-scale anammox-driven wastewater treatment systems. Life 2022; 12(7):971.

[43]	Duan H, Van Den Akker B, Thwaites BJ, Peng L, Herman C, Pan Y, et al. Mitigating nitrous oxide emissions at a full-scale wastewater treatment plant. Water Res 2020; 185:116196.

[44]	Carrère H, Dumas C, Battimelli A, Batstone DJ, Delgenès JP, Steyer JP, et al. Pretreatment methods to improve sludge anaerobic degradability: a review. J Hazard Mater 2010; 183(1-3):1-15.

[45]	Nghiem LD, Koch K, Bolzonella D, Drewes JE. Full scale co-digestion of wastewater sludge and food waste: bottlenecks and possibilities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017; 72:354-62.

[46]	Sravan JS, Tharak A, Mohan SV. Status of biogas production and biogas upgrading:a global scenario. In: Emerging technologies and biological systems for biogas upgrading. London:Academic Press; 2021. p. 3-26.

[47]	Shen Y, Linville JL, Urgun-Demirtas M, Minta MM, Snyder SW. An overview of biogas production and utilization at full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the United States: challenges and opportunities towards energy-neutral WWTPs. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015; 50:346-62.

[48]	Roediger M, Bogner R, Forstner G.Medium-temperature belt dryers for biosolids. In:Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation; 2008 Oct 18-22; Chicago, IL USA. Alexandria:Water Environment Federation (WEF); 2008. p. 5401-18.

[49]	Hao X, Chen Q, van Loosdrecht MCM, Li J, Jiang H. Sustainable disposal of excess sludge: incineration without anaerobic digestion. Water Res 2020; 170:115298.

[50]	Winkler MKH, Bennenbroek MH, Horstink FH, van Loosdrecht MCM, van de Pol GJ. The biodrying concept: an innovative technology creating energy from sewage sludge. Bioresour Technol 2013; 147:124-9.

[51]	Hao X, Li J, van Loosdrecht MCM, Jiang H, Liu R. Energy recovery from wastewater: heat over organics. Water Res 2019; 161:74-7.

[52]	Aryampa S, Stuetz RM, Fisher RM, Luo J, Wiedmann T. Integrated recovery of nutrients during municipal wastewater treatment and biosolids management. J Clean Prod 2025; 494:144984.

[53]	Henze M, van Loosdrecht MCM, Ekama GA, Brdjanovic D. Biological wastewater treatment: principles, modelling and design. 2nd ed. London: IWA Publishing; 2008.

[54]	Kehrein P, van Loosdrecht MCM, Osseweijer P, Garfí M, Dewulf J, Posada J. A critical review of resource recovery from municipal wastewater treatment plants-market supply potentials, technologies and bottlenecks. Environ Sci Water Res Technol 2020; 6(4):877-910.

[55]	Espíndola S, Pronk M, Zlopasa J, Picken SJ, van Loosdrecht MCM. Nanocellulose recovery from domestic wastewater. J Clean Prod 2021; 280:124507.

[56]	Pei R, Vicente-Venegas G, Tomaszewska-Porada A, van Loosdrecht MCM, Kleerebezem A, Werker A. Visualization of polyhydroxyalkanoate accumulated in waste activated sludge. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57(30):11108-21.

[57]	Wiśniowska E, Kowalczyk M. Recovery of cellulose, extracellular polymeric substances and microplastics from sewage sludge: a review. Energies 2022; 15(20):7744.

[58]	Bahgat NT, Wilfert P, Korving L, van Loosdrecht M. Integrated resource recovery from aerobic granular sludge plants. Water Res 2023; 234:119819.

[59]	Estévez-Alonso Á, Arias-Buendía M, Pei R, van Veelen HPJ, van Loosdrecht MCM, Kleerebezem R, et al. Calcium enhances polyhydroxyalkanoate production and promotes selective growth of the polyhydroxyalkanoate-storing biomass in municipal activated sludge. Water Res 2022; 226:119259.

[60]	Estévez-Alonso Á, Pei R, Van Loosdrecht MCM, Kleerebezem R, Werker A. Scaling-up microbial community-based polyhydroxyalkanoate production: status and challenges. Bioresour Technol 2021; 327:124790.

[61]	Yu B, Xiao X, Wang J, Hong M, Deng C, Li YY, et al. Enhancing phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge using anaerobic-based processes: current status and perspectives. Bioresour Technol 2021; 341:125899.