Organoid Assembloids: Toward Bioengineered Organs for Transplantation

Xiangyang Li; Xinming Ruan; Guoping Zhao

doi:10.1016/j.eng.2026.06.004

Engineering ›› :202606004 DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2026.06.004

research-article

Organoid Assembloids: Toward Bioengineered Organs for Transplantation

Xiangyang Li ^a
, Xinming Ruan ^a^,^*
, Guoping Zhao ^a^,^b^,^c^,^d^,^*

Author information +

History +

PDF (1202KB)

Abstract

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Xiangyang Li, Xinming Ruan, Guoping Zhao. Organoid Assembloids: Toward Bioengineered Organs for Transplantation. Engineering 202606004 DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2026.06.004

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	Li X, Ding R, Cai J . Organ transplantation: current status, challenges, and future prospects. MedComm 2026; 7:e70567.

[2]	Verstegen MMA, Coppes RP, Beghin A, De Coppi P, Gerli MFM, de Graeff N, et al. Clinical applications of human organoids. Nat Med 2025; 31:409—21.

[3]	Su J, Yan Z, Tang X, Wu T, Ling J, Qian W . Engineering spinal cord and peripheral nerve organoids: strategies for construction and potential applications for regenerative medicine in neurotrauma. Engineering. In press.

[4]	Tan N, Yang YY . Building blocks to the future of regenerative medicine: organoid bioprinting. Matter 2021; 4:2659-61.

[5]	Zhang Q, He J, Zhu D, Chen Y, Fu M, Lu S, et al. Genetically modified organoids for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 335:103337.

[6]	Zhao Z, Chen X, Dowbaj AM, Sljukic A, Bratlie K, Lin L, et al. Organoids. Nat Rev Methods Primers 2022; 2:94.

[7]	Takebe T, Wells JM . Organoids by design. Science 2019; 364:956-9.

[8]	Wu SR, Nowakowski TJ . Exploring human brain development and disease using assembloids. Neuron 2025; 113:1133—50.

[9]	Hong Y, Li L, Yan L, Bai L, Su J, Zhang X . Parabiosis, assembloids, organoids (pao). Adv Sci 2026; 13:e11671.

[10]	Yin Y, Zhou W, Zhu J, Chen Z, Jiang L, Zhuang X, et al. Generation of self—organized neuromusculoskeletal tri—tissue organoids from human pluripotent stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 2025; 32(1):157-71.

[11]	Hofer M, Lutolf MP . Engineering organoids. Nat Rev Mater 2021; 6:402-20.

[12]	Dai Y, Zhao F, Chen Q, Zeng B, Gu W, Zhang Y, et al. Microfluidic chip—integrated vascularized endometrial complexes: mitochondrial function and paracrine crosstalk enhance regenerative potential. Bioact Mater 2025; 54:551-69.

[13]	Wang D, Zhang X, Tang XY, Gan Y, Yu H, Wu S, et al. Generation of human nucleus basalis organoids with functional nbm—cortical cholinergic projections in transplanted assembloids. Cell Stem Cell 2025; 32:1833-48.

[14]	Tubbs E, Mehanovic´ M, Lopes M, Quintard C, Combe S, Pirlian C, et al. Human assembloid of human blood vessel organoids with pancreatic islets improves insulin secretion over time ex vivo. Cell Rep 2025; 44:116378.

[15]	Huang B, Medina P, He J, Zeng Z, Kim S, Romo J, et al. Spatially patterned kidney assembloids recapitulate progenitor self—assembly and enable high—fidelity in vivo disease modeling. Cell Stem Cell 2025; 32:1614-1633.e13.

[16]	Fang T, Zhang H, Xie Y, Li X, Liu X, Wang Z, et al. Centimeter—scale self—assembling tendon organoids drive tissue regeneration. Adv Sci 2025; 12:e09453.

[17]	Nam D, Park MR, Lee H, Bae SC, Gerovska D, Araúzo—Bravo MJ, et al. Induced endothelial cell—integrated liver assembloids promote hepatic maturation and therapeutic effect on cholestatic liver fibrosis. Cells 2022; 11:2242.

[18]	Borges TJ, Ganchiku Y, Aceves JO, van Gaal R, Uzel SGM, Rosales IA, et al. Exploring immune response toward transplanted human kidney tissues assembled from organoid building blocks. iScience 2024; 27:110957.

[19]	Jones BC, Benedetti G, Calà G, Amiri R, Tullie L, Lutman R, et al. Human gastric multi—regional assembloids for functional parietal maturation and patient—specific modelling of antral foveolar hyperplasia. 2026. bioRxiv: 602480.

[20]	Liu H, Zhang X, Liu J, Qin J . Vascularization of engineered organoids. BMEMat 2023; 1(3):e12031.

[21]	Koning M, Dumas SJ, Avramut MC, Koning RI, Meta E, Lievers E, et al. Vasculogenesis in kidney organoids upon transplantation. NPJ Regen Med 2022; 7:40.

[22]	Naderi—Meshkin H, Cornelius VA, Eleftheriadou M, Potel KN, Setyaningsih WAW, Margariti A . Vascular organoids: Unveiling advantages, applications, challenges, and disease modelling strategies. Stem Cell Res Ther 2023; 14:292.

[23]	Gao Q, Wang J, Zhang H, Wang J, Jing Y, Su J . Organoid vascularization: strategies and applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2025; 14:e2500301.

[24]	Zhu L, Liu S, Yang Z, Yang L, Yang Y, Han P, et al. Construction of vascularized liver microtissues recapitulates angiocrine—mediated hepatocytes maturation and enhances therapeutic efficacy for acute liver failure. Bioact Mater 2025; 50:525—39.

[25]	Kim JH, Jin G, Kim J, Kim C, Kang C, Lee S, et al. Bioprinting and assembly of organ building blocks for tissue engineering applications. Mater Today Bio 2026; 37:102842.

[26]	Nash A, Lokhorst N, Veiseh O . Localized immunomodulation technologies to enable cellular and organoid transplantation. Trends Mol Med 2023; 29:635—45.

[27]	Yuan L, Dawka S, Kim Y, Liebert A, Rost F, Arnes—Benito R, et al. Human assembloids recapitulate periportal liver tissue in vitro. Nature 2026; 650:438-49.

[28]	O’Hern C, Caywood S, Aminova S, Kiselev A, Volmert B, Cao W, et al. Human heart—macrophage assembloids mimic immune—cardiac interactions and enable arrhythmia disease modeling. Cell Stem Cell 2025; 32:1671-90.

[29]	Zhang W, Yu L, Pan J, Deng J, Tong X, Zhao B, et al. Geometrically—engineered human motor assembloids—on—a—chip for neuromuscular interaction readout and hypoxia—driven disease modeling. Nat Commun 2025; 16:8693.