A Review on Liquid-Ammonia Injection and Combustion for Engine Applications

Hao Wu , Fahad Almatrafi , Moez Ben Houidi , Tiegang Fang , William L. Roberts

Engineering ››

PDF (11409KB)
Engineering ›› DOI: 10.1016/j.eng.2025.09.008
review-article
A Review on Liquid-Ammonia Injection and Combustion for Engine Applications
Author information +
History +
PDF (11409KB)

Abstract

This comprehensive review examines the application of liquid-ammonia injection and combustion in engine systems, highlighting the potential of liquid ammonia as a carbon–neutral fuel alternative. The study synthesizes recent advancements in liquid-ammonia injection and combustion technologies, addressing critical domains such as fundamental fuel properties, injection and spray dynamics, combustion behavior, and engine performance. Key challenges are identified, including ammonia’s high latent heat of vaporization, slow flame-propagation speed, narrow flammability range, and elevated NOx emissions, while emphasizing the need for optimized injection strategies and nozzle designs to enhance atomization and mixing. The research findings indicate that liquid-ammonia injection can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with dual-fuel modes (e.g., ammonia–diesel) proving effective in overcoming ammonia’s low reactivity. Studies show that both low-pressure and high-pressure dual fuel-injection modes can achieve substantial emission reductions, with high-pressure injections offering better thermal efficiency and lower NOx emissions. Innovative approaches, such as turbulent jet ignition, stratified fuel injection, and hydrogen co-injection, have been explored to improve ignition efficiency and combustion stability. Future research should prioritize the development of integrated solutions that combine advanced combustion technologies, optimized engine designs, and effective emission-control strategies. Collaboration between academia, industry, and policymakers will be crucial in driving the adoption of ammonia as a sustainable fuel alternative.

Keywords

Liquid ammonia / Flash-boiling spray / Alternative fuels / Dual-fuel combustion / Internal-combustion engines

Cite this article

Download citation ▾
Hao Wu, Fahad Almatrafi, Moez Ben Houidi, Tiegang Fang, William L. Roberts. A Review on Liquid-Ammonia Injection and Combustion for Engine Applications. Engineering DOI:10.1016/j.eng.2025.09.008

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户 忘记密码

References

[1]

Spatolisano E, Pellegrini LA, de AR Angelis, Cattaneo S, Roccaro E.Ammonia as a carbon-free energy carrier: NH3 cracking to H2.Ind Eng Chem Res 2023; 62(28):10813-10827.

[2]

Wu H, Ben M Houidi, Almatrafi F, Wu B, Du J, Magnotti G, et al.Hydrogen jet characteristics with an outwardly opening piezo injector.Phys Fluids 2025; 37(3):036103.

[3]

David WI, Agnew GD, Bañares-Alcántara R, Barth J, Hansen JB, Br Péquigny, et al.2023 roadmap on ammonia as a carbon-free fuel.J Phys Energy 2024; 6(2):021501.

[4]

MacFarlane DR, Cherepanov PV, Choi J, Suryanto BH, Hodgetts RY, Bakker JM, et al.A roadmap to the ammonia economy.Joule 2020; 4(6):1186-1205.

[5]

Valera-Medina A, Amer-Hatem F, Azad AK, Dedoussi I, De M Joannon, Fernandes R, et al.Review on ammonia as a potential fuel: from synthesis to economics.Energy Fuels 2021; 35(9):6964-7029.

[6]

Ishaq H, Crawford C.Review of ammonia production and utilization: enabling clean energy transition and net-zero climate targets.Energy Convers Manag 2024; 300:117869.

[7]

.Ammonia technology roadmap: towards more sustainable nitrogen fertiliser production.Report. Paris: International Energy Agency; 2021.

[8]

Salmon N, Bañares-Alcántara R.Green ammonia as a spatial energy vector: a review.Sustain Energy Fuels 2021; 5(11):2814-2839.

[9]

Chehade G, Dincer I.Progress in green ammonia production as potential carbon-free fuel.Fuel 2021; 299:120845.

[10]

Olabi A, Abdelkareem MA, Al-Murisi M, Shehata N, Alami AH, Radwan A, et al.Recent progress in green ammonia: production, applications, assessment; barriers, and its role in achieving the sustainable development goals.Energy Convers Manag 2023; 277:116594.

[11]

Guerra CF, Reyes-Bozo L, Vyhmeister E, Caparrós MJ, Salazar JL, Clemente-Jul C.Technical–economic analysis for a green ammonia production plant in Chile and its subsequent transport to Japan.Renew Energy 2020; 157:404-414.

[12]

Klerke A, Christensen CH, N JKørskov, Vegge T.Ammonia for hydrogen storage: challenges and opportunities.J Mater Chem 2008; 18(20):2304-2310.

[13]

Valera-Medina A, Xiao H, Owen-Jones M, David WI, Bowen P.Ammonia for power.Pror Energy Combust Sci 2018; 69:63-102.

[14]

Giddey S, Badwal S, Munnings C, Dolan M.Ammonia as a renewable energy transportation media.ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2017; 5(11):10231-10239.

[15]

Dolan RH, Anderson JE, Wallington TJ.Outlook for ammonia as a sustainable transportation fuel.Sustain Energy Fuels 2021; 5(19):4830-4841.

[16]

Schüth F, Palkovits R, Schlögl R, Su DS.Ammonia as a possible element in an energy infrastructure: catalysts for ammonia decomposition.Energy Environ Sci 2012; 5(4):6278-6289.

[17]

Tawalbeh M, Murtaza SZ, Al-Othman A, Alami AH, Singh K, Olabi AG.Ammonia: a versatile candidate for the use in energy storage systems.Renew Energy 2022; 194:955-977.

[18]

Zhou X, Li T, Yang W.Ammonia–hydrogen engine with single ammonia fuel supply.Joule 2025; 9(5):101922.

[19]

Sun S, Jiang Q, Zhao D, Cao T, Sha H, Zhang C, et al.Ammonia as hydrogen carrier: advances in ammonia decomposition catalysts for promising hydrogen production.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022; 169:112918.

[20]

Afif A, Radenahmad N, Cheok Q, Shams S, Kim JH, Azad AK.Ammonia-fed fuel cells: a comprehensive review.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016; 60:822-835.

[21]

Morlan Nés, Katikaneni SP, Paglieri SN, Harale A, Solami B, Sarathy SM, et al.A technological roadmap to the ammonia energy economy: current state and missing technologies.Chem Eng J 2021; 408:127310.

[22]

Machaj K, Kupecki J, Malecha Z, Morawski A, Skrzypkiewicz M, Stanclik M, et al.Ammonia as a potential marine fuel: a review.Energy Strategy Rev 2022; 44:100926.

[23]

An Z, Xing J, Kurose R.Recent progresses in research on liquid ammonia spray and combustion: a review. Appl Energy Combust Sci (2024), Article 100293

[24]

Dimitriou P, Javaid R.A review of ammonia as a compression ignition engine fuel.Int J Hydrogen Energy 2020; 45(11):7098-7118.

[25]

Starkman ES, Newhall H, Sutton R, Maguire T, Farbar L.Ammonia as a spark ignition engine fuel: theory and application. SAE Trans (1966), Article 660155

[26]

Cornelius W, Huellmantel LW, Mitchell HR.Ammonia as an engine fuel. SAE Trans (1966), Article 650052

[27]

Chorowski M, Lepszy M, Machaj K, Malecha Z, Porwisiak D, Porwisiak P, et al.Challenges of application of green ammonia as fuel in onshore transportation.Energies 2023; 16(13):4898.

[28]

Powders MT, Luqmani BA, Pidou M, Zhu M, McAdam EJ.The use of ammonia recovered from wastewater as a zero-carbon energy vector to decarbonise heat, power and transport–a review.Water Res 2024; 268:122649.

[29]

Notton G, Nivet ML, Voyant C, Paoli C, Darras C, Motte F, et al.Intermittent and stochastic character of renewable energy sources: consequences, cost of intermittence and benefit of forecasting.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018; 87:96-105.

[30]

Koons E.Ammonia fuel: advantages and disadvantages.Report. Energy Tracker Asia; 2023.

[31]

Huang Y, Nie Z, Zhang L, Liu X, Feng J, Yin Y, et al.Ammonia fuel: a pathway for carbon-neutral of the transportation sector.Chain 2024; 1(2):113-137.

[32]

Kumar L, Sleiti AK.Systematic review on ammonia as a sustainable fuel for combustion.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2024; 202:114699.

[33]

Ojelade OA, Zaman SF, Ni BJ.Green ammonia production technologies: a review of practical progress.J Environ Manage 2023; 342:118348.

[34]

Mallouppas G, Ioannou C, Yfantis EA.A review of the latest trends in the use of green ammonia as an energy carrier in maritime industry.Energies 2022; 15(4):1453.

[35]

Al-Aboosi FY, El-Halwagi MM, Moore M, Nielsen RB.Renewable ammonia as an alternative fuel for the shipping industry.Curr Opin Chem Eng 2021; 31:100670.

[36]

Fullonton A, Lea-Langton AR, Madugu F, Larkin A.Green ammonia adoption in shipping: opportunities and challenges across the fuel supply chain.Mar Policy 2025; 171:106444.

[37]

Kosmajac S.MAN ES presses on with project to develop four-stroke ammonia-powered engine.Report. Schiedam: Offshore Energy; 2024.

[38]

Prevljak NH.Wärtsilä rolls out industry’s first 4-stroke ammonia engine.Report. Schiedam: Offshore Energy; 2023.

[39]

Atchison J.Hyundai Heavy Industries unveils marine ammonia engine.Report. Ashburn: Ammonia Energy Association; 2024.

[40]

Xinhua.China’s first medium-speed high-power ammonia-fuelled engine ignites [Internet]. Beijing: Chinadaily; 2023 Dec 7 [cited 2025 Mar 23]. Available from: https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202312/07/WS65718967a31090682a5f201c.html

[41]

Corporation IHI.Carbon-neutral thermal power generation using ammonia combustion technology development and boiler design to expand use of ammonia.Report. Tokyo: IHI Corporation; 2022.

[42]

Yamashita T, Amari T, Urakata Y, Sumida T, Okazaki T, Takayama A.Development of ammonia co-firing technology for coal-fired boilers toward decarbonized society.Mitsubishi Heavy Ind Tech Rev 2022; 59:4.

[43]

Atchison J.JERA targets 50% ammonia–coal co-firing by 2030.Report. Ashburn: Ammonia Energy Association; 2022.

[44]

Tian J, Wang L, Xiong Y, Wang Y, Yin W, Tian G, et al.Enhancing combustion efficiency and reducing nitrogen oxide emissions from ammonia combustion: a comprehensive review.Process Saf Environ Prot 2024; 183:514-543.

[45]

Verhelst S, Turner JW, Sileghem L, Vancoillie J.Methanol as a fuel for internal combustion engines.Pror Energy Combust Sci 2019; 70:43-88.

[46]

Yip HL, Srna A, Yuen ACY, Kook S, Taylor RA, Yeoh GH, et al.A review of hydrogen direct injection for internal combustion engines: towards carbon-free combustion.Appl Sci 2019; 9(22):4842.

[47]

Mazloomi K, Gomes C.Hydrogen as an energy carrier: prospects and challenges.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012; 16(5):3024-3033.

[48]

Kobayashi H, Hayakawa A, Somarathne KKA, Okafor EC.Science and technology of ammonia combustion.Proc Combust Inst 2019; 37(1):109-133.

[49]

Lu Q, Peng Z, Zhou S, Zhang B, Chen H, Yang S.Mini-review of spray and combustion characteristics for ammonia engines.Energy Fuels 2024; 38(20):19156-19173.

[50]

He X, Shu B, Nascimento D, Moshammer K, Costa M, Fernandes R.Auto-ignition kinetics of ammonia and ammonia/hydrogen mixtures at intermediate temperatures and high pressures.Combust Flame 2019; 206:189-200.

[51]

Mouna Cïm-Rousselle, Br Péquigny, Dumand C, Houill Sé.Operating limits for ammonia fuel spark-ignition engine.Energies 2021; 14(14):4141.

[52]

El-Adawy M, Nemitallah MA, Abdelhafez A.Towards sustainable hydrogen and ammonia internal combustion engines: challenges and opportunities.Fuel 2024; 364:131090.

[53]

Goodman J, Dhankhar A, Date A, Lappas P.Ammonia–air laminar flame speeds from ambient to IC engine conditions: a review.Fuel 2025; 383:133769.

[54]

Alnajideen M, Shi H, Northrop W, Emberson D, Kane S, Czyzewski P, et al.Ammonia combustion and emissions in practical applications: a review.Carbon Neutrality 2024; 3(1):1-45.

[55]

Hewlett SG, Valera-Medina A, Pugh DG, Bowen PJ.Gas turbine co-firing of steelworks ammonia with coke oven gas or methane: a fundamental and cycle analysis. In: Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2019: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition; 2019 Jun 17–21; Phoenix, AZ, USA. New York City: American Society of Mechanical Engineers; 2019.

[56]

Feng R, Li Z.Current investigations on global N2O emissions and reductions: prospect and outlook.Environ Pollut 2023; 338:122664.

[57]

Niki Y.Reductions in unburned ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions from an ammonia-assisted diesel engine with early timing diesel pilot injection.J Eng Gas Turbine Power 2021; 143(9):091014.

[58]

Eyisse EF, Nadimi E, Wu D.Ammonia combustion: internal combustion engines and gas turbines.Energies 2024; 18(1):29.

[59]

Zhou L, Zhong L, Liu Z, Wei H.Toward highly-efficient combustion of ammonia–hydrogen engine: prechamber turbulent jet ignition.Fuel 2023; 352:129009.

[60]

Koike M, Miyagawa H, Suzuoki T, Ogasawara K.Ammonia as a hydrogen energy carrier and its application to internal combustion engines.J Combust Soc Jpn 2016; 58(184):99-106.

[61]

Yamashita H, Hayakawa A, Oku K, Colson S, Reibel G, Chen Y, et al.Visualization of liquid ammonia spray using 2p-SLIPI and comparison of liquid ammonia spray and gaseous ammonia combustion in a swirl combustor at atmospheric pressure.Fuel 2024; 371:131833.

[62]

Angelilli L, Hernández FE Pérez, Im HG, Ciottoli PP, Valorani M.Evaporation and clustering of ammonia droplets in a hot environment.Phys Rev Fluids 2022; 7(11):114301.

[63]

Wang X, Bu H, Chen H, Liu J, Chen Z, Gao J.Numerical investigation of diesel spray combustion characteristics in the ammonia/air atmosphere.J Energy Inst 2024; 116:101718.

[64]

Xu L, Dong P, Zhang Z, Bu J, Tian J, Long W, et al.Impact of spray interaction on ammonia/diesel dual-fuel combustion and emission under engine relevant conditions.Proc Combust Inst 2024; 40(1–4):105751.

[65]

Wang B, Yang C, Wang H, Hu D, Duan B, Wang Y.Study on injection strategy of ammonia/hydrogen dual fuel engine under different compression ratios.Fuel 2023; 334:126666.

[66]

Park C, Jang I, Kim M, Park G, Kim Y.Effect of high compression ratio on thermal efficiency and unburned ammonia emissions of a dual-fuel high-pressure direct injection marine ammonia engine.Appl Therm Eng 2025; 261:125183.

[67]

Okafor EC, Yamashita H, Hayakawa A, Somarathne KKA, Kudo T, Tsujimura T, et al.Flame stability and emissions characteristics of liquid ammonia spray co-fired with methane in a single stage swirl combustor.Fuel 2021; 287:119433.

[68]

Liu J, Zhang M, An Z, Wang J, Huang Z.Effect of preheated air temperature on a liquid ammonia flash spray in a swirl combustor.Droplet 2025; 4(1):e159.

[69]

Scharl V, Lackovic T, Sattelmayer T.Characterization of ammonia spray combustion and mixture formation under high-pressure, direct injection conditions.Fuel 2023; 333:126454.

[70]

Scharl V, Sattelmayer T.Ignition and combustion characteristics of diesel piloted ammonia injections.Fuel Commun 2022; 11:100068.

[71]

Elbaz AM, Wang S, Guiberti TF, Roberts WL.Review on the recent advances on ammonia combustion from the fundamentals to the applications.Fuel Commun 2022; 10:100053.

[72]

Otomo J, Koshi M, Mitsumori T, Iwasaki H, Yamada K.Chemical kinetic modeling of ammonia oxidation with improved reaction mechanism for ammonia/air and ammonia/hydrogen/air combustion.Int J Hydrogen Energy 2018; 43(5):3004-3014.

[73]

Okafor EC, Naito Y, Colson S, Ichikawa A, Kudo T, Hayakawa A, et al.Experimental and numerical study of the laminar burning velocity of CH4–NH3–air premixed flames.Combust Flame 2018; 187:185-198.

[74]

Cai T, Zhao D, Gutmark E.Overview of fundamental kinetic mechanisms and emission mitigation in ammonia combustion.Chem Eng J 2023; 458:141391.

[75]

Xiao H, Valera-Medina A, Bowen PJ.Study on premixed combustion characteristics of co-firing ammonia/methane fuels.Energy 2017; 140:125-135.

[76]

Li J, Lai S, Chen D, Wu R, Kobayashi N, Deng L, et al.A review on combustion characteristics of ammonia as a carbon-free fuel.Front Energy Res 2021; 9:760356.

[77]

Wang Y, Wang X, Zeng W, Wang W, Song Z.Advancements in turbulent combustion of ammonia-based fuels: a review.Int J Hydrogen Energy 2024; 88:1332-1355.

[78]

Zhang M, Wei X, An Z, Okafor EC, Guiberti TF, Wang J, et al.Flame stabilization and emission characteristics of ammonia combustion in lab-scale gas turbine combustors: recent progress and prospects.Prog Energy Combust Sci 2025; 106:101193.

[79]

Valera-Medina A, Marsh R, Runyon J, Pugh D, Beasley P, Hughes T, et al.Ammonia–methane combustion in tangential swirl burners for gas turbine power generation.Appl Energy 2017; 185:1362-1371.

[80]

Wei D, Fang H, Tang H, Wang Y, Wei G, Zhou H.Experimental study of combustion instability and emission characteristics of ethanol/ammonia co-firing swirl flame.Fuel 2024; 362:130786.

[81]

Zhang X, Tian J, Li X, Yin S, Cui Z, Yang H, et al.Fundamental study on the factors influencing the stability of ammonia combustion and the effects of pre-chamber on the combustion characteristics.Appl Therm Eng 2024; 254:123812.

[82]

Zhu X, Du J, Yu Z, Cheng YB, Wang Y.NOx emission and control in ammonia combustion: state-of-the-Art review and future perspectives.Energy Fuels 2023; 38(1):43-60.

[83]

Chiong MC, Chong CT, Ng JH, Mashruk S, Chong WWF, Samiran NA, et al.Advancements of combustion technologies in the ammonia-fuelled engines.Energy Convers Manag 2021; 244:114460.

[84]

Cheng Q, Muhammad A, Kaario O, Ahmad Z, Martti L.Ammonia as a sustainable fuel: review and novel strategies.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2025; 207:114995.

[85]

Kang L, Pan W, Zhang J, Wang W, Tang C.A review on ammonia blends combustion for industrial applications.Fuel 2023; 332:126150.

[86]

Pan S, Ma J, Chen X, Yang W, Liang C.A simplified reaction model for combustion of ammonia.Fuel 2025; 383:133818.

[87]

Zhu Y, Curran HJ, Girhe S, Murakami Y, Pitsch H, Senecal K, et al.The combustion chemistry of ammonia and ammonia/hydrogen mixtures: a comprehensive chemical kinetic modeling study.Combust Flame 2024; 260:113239.

[88]

Mathieu O, Petersen EL.Experimental and modeling study on the high-temperature oxidation of ammonia and related NOx chemistry.Combust Flame 2015; 162(3):554-570.

[89]

Stagni A, Cavallotti C, Arunthanayothin S, Song Y, Herbinet O, Battin-Leclerc F, et al.An experimental, theoretical and kinetic-modeling study of the gas-phase oxidation of ammonia.React Chem Eng 2020; 5(4):696-711.

[90]

Sher E, Bar-Kohany T, Rashkovan A.Flash-boiling atomization.Pror Energy Combust Sci 2008; 34(4):417-439.

[91]

Bar-Kohany T, Levy M.State of the art review of flash-boiling atomization.At Sprays 2016; 26(12):1259-1305.

[92]

Wang L, Wang F, Fang T.Flash boiling hollow cone spray from a GDI injector under different conditions.Int J Multiph Flow 2019; 118:50-63.

[93]

Xu M, Zhang Y, Zeng W, Zhang G, Zhang M.Flash boiling: easy and better way to generate ideal sprays than the high injection pressure.SAE Int J Fuel Lubr 2013; 6(1):137-148.

[94]

Polanco G, Hold AEø, Munday G.General review of flashing jet studies.J Hazard Mater 2010; 173(1–3):2-18.

[95]

Chang M, Lee Z, Park S, Park S.Characteristics of flash boiling and its effects on spray behavior in gasoline direct injection injectors: a review.Fuel 2020; 271:117600.

[96]

Li X, Wang S, Yang S, Qiu S, Sun Z, Hung DL, et al.A review on the recent advances of flash boiling atomization and combustion applications.Pror Energy Combust Sci 2024; 100:101119.

[97]

Wang S, Qiu S, Li X, Zhang P.Modeling non-monotonic variation of plume angle with superheat index of flash boiling spray.Energy 2024; 306:132515.

[98]

Du J, Mohan B, Sim J, Fang T, Roberts WL.Study of spray structure under flash boiling conditions using 2phase-SLIPI.Exp Fluids 2021; 62(1):1-17.

[99]

Zeng W, Xu M, Zhang G, Zhang Y, Cleary DJ.Atomization and vaporization for flash-boiling multi-hole sprays with alcohol fuels.Fuel 2012; 95:287-297.

[100]

Li S, Li T, Wang N, Zhou X, Chen R, Yi P.An investigation on near-field and far-field characteristics of superheated ammonia spray.Fuel 2022; 324:124683.

[101]

Li S, Li T, Wang N, Zhou X, Yi P, Chen R.Effect of near-field characteristics on the two-phase distribution of superheated ammonia spray.Int J Engine Res 2023; 24(10):4373-4381.

[102]

Ma Y, Zhong W, Lai S, Chen J, Pachiannan T, Zhang L, et al.Experimental study on the flash boiling spray characteristics and jet fluctuation of high-pressure direct injection liquid ammonia.Appl Therm Eng 2024; 257:124032.

[103]

Fang Y, Ma X, Zhang Y, Li Y, Zhang K, Jiang C, et al.Experimental investigation of high-pressure liquid ammonia injection under non-flash boiling and flash boiling conditions.Energies 2023; 16(6):2843.

[104]

Fang Y, Zhang K, Ma X, Zhang Y, Xu L, Li Y, et al.Droplet measurement of high-pressure liquid ammonia injection using PDPA. SAE Technical Paper; 2023:2023–01–1637.

[105]

Liu X, Yao X, Wang Z, Tang C.Single hole ammonia spray macroscopic and microscopic characteristics at flare and transition flash boiling regions.Appl Therm Eng 2023; 235:121443.

[106]

Li S, Liu S, Wang N, Li T, Chen R, Yi P, et al.Atomization and evaporation characteristics of liquid ammonia spray under engine intake stroke conditions.Energy 2025; 316:134589.

[107]

Zhong W, Chen J, Li C, Huang Y, Pachiannan T, Jiang Z, et al.Visualization study on flash boiling spray characteristics of high-pressure liquid ammonia with different nozzle diameters.Fuel 2024; 367:131525.

[108]

Shen L, Leach F.Effect of Ambient Pressure on Ammonia Sprays Using a Single Hole Injector. SAE Tech Pap 2024:2024–01–618.

[109]

Colson S, Yamashita H, Oku K, Somarathne KDKA, Kudo T, Hayakawa A, et al.Study on the effect of injection temperature and nozzle geometry on the flashing transition of liquid ammonia spray.Fuel 2023; 348:128612.

[110]

Desclaux A, Hespel C, Mounaïm-Rousselle C.Liquid Ammonia injection on single hole injector: effect of initial conditions on flash boiling process. In: Proceedings of 32nd European Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray System; 2023 Sep 4–7; Napoli, Italy. 2023. Hannover: TIB; 2023.

[111]

Bj KOørgen, Desclaux A, Mouna Cïm-Rousselle, Hespel C.Experimental characterization of superheated ammonia spray from a single-hole ECN spray M injector.J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2025; 147(8):081018.

[112]

Hiroyasu H, Arai M.Structures of fuel sprays in diesel engines. SAE Tech Pap (1990)

[113]

Naber JD, Siebers DL.Effects of gas density and vaporization on penetration and dispersion of diesel sprays. SAE Tech Pap 1996:960034.

[114]

Wu H, Zhang F, Zhang Z.Fundamental spray characteristics of air-assisted injection system using aviation kerosene.Fuel 2021; 286:119420.

[115]

Huang Z, Wang H, Luo K, Fan J.Large eddy simulation investigation of ammonia spray characteristics under flash and non-flash boiling conditions.Appl Energy Combust Sci 2023; 16:100220.

[116]

An Z, Xing J, Kurose R.Numerical study on the phase change and spray characteristics of liquid ammonia flash spray.Fuel 2023; 345:128229.

[117]

Wang J, Wang H, Zheng Z, Yao M.Numerical analysis of flash-boiling spray characteristics with liquid ammonia.Phys Fluids 2024; 36(6):063327.

[118]

Zhou X, Li T, Wang N, Wu Z, Cao J, Chen R, et al.Similarity of high-pressure direct-injection liquid ammonia spray for different-sized engines.Energy 2024; 310:133267.

[119]

Pel Ré, Mouna Cïm-Rousselle, Br Péquigny, Hespel C, Bellettre J.First study on ammonia spray characteristics with a current GDI engine injector.Fuels 2021; 2(3):253-271.

[120]

Akram MS, Cheng Q, Kaario O, Larmi M.Superheated fuel sprays: a comparative study of flash boiling ammonia fuel sprays with methanol, ethanol, and gasoline for multi-hole fuel injection.Case Stud Therm Eng 2024; 61:105110.

[121]

Scharl V, Bj KOPørgen, Emberson DR, L Tøvås.Investigation of fuel temperature and injection timing effects on ammonia direct injection in an optical engine.Appl Energy Combust Sci 2024; 20:100299.

[122]

Zembi J, Battistoni M, Pandal A, Rousselle C, Pel Rè, Brequigny P, et al.Numerical study of ammonia spray with a GDI engine injector.J Ammonia Energy 2023; 1:59-73.

[123]

Hu Y, Li J, Chen H, Zhang F, Wang L.Numerical study on spray characteristics of liquid ammonia based on variable model constants.Appl Therm Eng 2024; 261:125166.

[124]

Rachakonda SK, Goette D, Schmidt DP.Near-nozzle flash-boiling flow of iso-octane, methanol, and ammonia in the engine combustion network spray G injector.Phys Fluids 2024; 36(11):113371.

[125]

Zembi J, Battistoni M, Pandal A, Pel Ré, Brequigny P, Hespel C, et al.Lagrangian CFD modeling of ammonia sprays: a correlation across flash boiling and evaporative conditions.Int Commun Heat Mass Transf 2024; 158:107866.

[126]

Payri R, García-Oliver JM, Bracho G, Cao J.Experimental characterization of direct injection liquid ammonia sprays under non-reacting diesel-like conditions.Fuel 2024; 362:130851.

[127]

Zhang Y, Xu L, Zhu Y, Xu S, Bai XS.Numerical study on liquid ammonia direct injection spray characteristics under engine-relevant conditions.Appl Energy 2023; 334:120680.

[128]

Wu H, Du J, Houidi MB, Aljohani B, Cenker E, AlRamadan AS, et al.Spray and combustion characterization under an ultra-high-density condition–multi-fuel comparison.Proc Combust Inst 2024; 40(1–4):105555.

[129]

Wang N, Li T, Zhou X, Li S, Chen R.Characteristics of high-pressure ammonia spray combustion under diesel-like conditions.Appl Therm Eng 2024; 257:124335.

[130]

Li S, Wang N, Li T, Chen R, Yi P, Huang S, et al.Experimental investigation on liquid length of direct-injection ammonia spray under engine-like conditions.Energy 2024; 301:131758.

[131]

Yang R, Tang Q, Cheng H, Zhang S, Zhang Y, Yao M.Experimental study on the spray characteristics of high-pressure liquid ammonia under different ambient conditions.J Energy Inst 2024; 117:101771.

[132]

Wu H, Mi S, Qian Y, Zhang T, Zhang J, Pan C, et al.Spray and evaporation characteristics of high-pressure liquid ammonia injection under flash-boiling and evaporating conditions.Fuel 2025; 381:133627.

[133]

Wu H, Qian Y, Zhang T, Zhu J, Lu X.Ignition and flame development of high-pressure liquid ammonia spray combustion with simultaneous high-speed OH* and NH2* chemiluminescence imaging.Combust Flame 2025; 272:113899.

[134]

Matsuura Y, Banno A, Mikami M.Single ammonia droplet combustion in a high-pressure environment in microgravity.Proc Combust Inst 2024; 40(1–4):105503.

[135]

Scharl V, Sattelmayer T.Spectroscopic investigation of diesel-piloted ammonia spray combustion.Fuel 2024; 358:130201.

[136]

Zhang X, Tian J, Cui Z, Yin S, Ye M, Yang H, et al.Visualization study on the flame propagation and distribution characteristics and exploration of optimal injection strategy in ammonia/diesel dual direct injection mode.Energy 2024; 307:132499.

[137]

Wu H, Qian Y, Mi S, Zhang T, Lu X.Ammonia–PODE dual-fuel direct-injection spray combustion: an optical study of spray interaction, ignition and flame development.J Clean Prod 2024; 487:144647.

[138]

Pathak U, Scharl V, Krnac D, Sattelmayer T.Numerical investigation on temperature dependence of flame behavior in high pressure direct injection combustion of diesel piloted liquid ammonia sprays. In: Proceedings of Internal Combustion Engine Division; 2024 Oct 20–23; San Antonio, Texas, USA. New York City: ASME; 2024.

[139]

Zhang J, Chen D, Li X, Li J, Huang H, Kobayashi N.Large eddy simulation of ammonia–diesel dual fuel spray combustion: effects of ambient condition on ignition characteristics.Chem Eng J 2024; 501:157698.

[140]

Yu W, Wei Y, Dong D, Zhou M, Mi X, Zhang Z, et al.Characteristics of NO/NO2/N2O Formation and distribution in ammonia/n-heptane dual-fuel spray combustion under different ammonia concentrations.Energy Fuels 2024; 38(17):16882-16895.

[141]

Tian J, Zhang X, Cui Z, Ye M, Wang Y, Xu T, et al.Visualization study on ammonia/diesel dual direct injection combustion characteristics and interaction between sprays.Energy Convers Manag 2024; 299:117857.

[142]

Chen Z, He H, Wu J, Wang L, Lou H, Zhao P, et al.An experimental study the cross spray and combustion characteristics diesel and ammonia in a constant volume combustion chamber.Energy 2024; 293:130733.

[143]

Zhang Z, Long W, Cui Z, Dong P, Tian J, Tian H, et al.Visualization study on the ignition and diffusion combustion process of liquid phase ammonia spray ignited by diesel jet in a constant volume vessel.Energy Convers Manag 2024; 299:117889.

[144]

Sharma P, Brouzet D, Chung WT, Ihme M.Examining diesel-spray assisted ignition of ammonia under reactivity-controlled conditions using large-eddy simulations.Proc Combust Inst 2024; 40(1–4):105317.

[145]

Haputhanthri SO, Maxwell TT, Fleming J, Austin C.Ammonia and gasoline fuel blends for internal combustion engines.J Energy Res Technol 2015; 137(6):062201.

[146]

Ryu K, Zacharakis-Jutz GE, Kong SC.Performance characteristics of compression-ignition engine using high concentration of ammonia mixed with dimethyl ether.Appl Energy 2014; 113:488-499.

[147]

Gross CW, Kong SC.Performance characteristics of a compression-ignition engine using direct-injection ammonia–DME mixtures.Fuel 2013; 103:1069-1079.

[148]

Xu L, Xu S, Bai XS, Repo JA, Hautala S, Hyvönen J.Performance and emission characteristics of an ammonia/diesel dual-fuel marine engine.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2023; 185:113631.

[149]

Lang M, Su Y, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Wang B, Chen S.Experimental study on the effects of pilot injection strategy on combustion and emission characteristics of ammonia/diesel dual fuel engine under low load.Energy 2024; 303:131913.

[150]

Shi T, Pei Y, Jin S, Zi Z, Zhang F, Wu B.An investigation into particulate emission and the formation mechanism of soot precursors in ammonia–diesel dual-fuel engines.Fuel 2025; 391:134734.

[151]

Zhong L, Zhao W, Wei H, Shu G, Zhou L.A novel concept of pre-chamber turbulent jet ignition-induced liquid ammonia spray flame.Phys Fluids 2024; 36(12):126107.

[152]

Ichikawa Y, Niki Y, Takasaki K, Kobayashi H, Miyanagi A.NH3 combustion using three-layer stratified fuel injection for a large two-stroke marine engine: experimental verification of the concept.Appl Energy Combust Sci 2022; 10:100071.

[153]

Ichikawa Y, Niki Y, Takasaki K, Kobayashi H, Miyanagi A.Experimental study of combustion process of NH3 stratified spray using imaging methods for NH3 fueled large two-stroke marine engine.Appl Energy Combust Sci 2023; 13:100119.

[154]

Bakir AH, Ge H, Zhang Z, Zhao P.Computational investigation on spray autoignition of liquid ammonia with dissolved hydrogen in spray D configuration.Fuel 2024; 371:132124.

[155]

Zhou X, Li T, Wang N, Wang X, Chen R, Li S.Pilot diesel–ignited ammonia dual fuel low-speed marine engines: a comparative analysis of ammonia premixed and high-pressure spray combustion modes with CFD simulation.Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2023; 173:113108.

[156]

Nadimi E, Przyby Gła, L Tøvås, Peczkis G, Adamczyk W.Experimental and numerical study on direct injection of liquid ammonia and its injection timing in an ammonia–biodiesel dual injection engine.Energy 2023; 284:129301.

[157]

Nadimi E, Przyby Gła, L Tøvås, Adamczyk W.Effects of biodiesel injector configuration and its injection timing on performance, combustion and emissions characteristics of liquid ammonia dual direct injection engine.J Energy Inst 2024; 114:101605.

[158]

Zhang Z, Long W, Dong P, Tian H, Tian J, Li B, et al.Performance characteristics of a two-stroke low speed engine applying ammonia/diesel dual direct injection strategy.Fuel 2023; 332:126086.

[159]

Dong P, Liu K, Zhang L, Zhang Z, Long W, Tian H.Study on the synergistic control of nitrogenous emissions and greenhouse gas of ammonia/diesel dual direct injection two-stroke engine.Energy 2024; 307:132657.

[160]

Dong P, Chen S, Zhang L, Zhang Z, Long W, Wang Q, et al.Ammonia diffusion combustion and emission formation characteristics in a single cylinder two stroke engine.Energy 2024; 311:133432.

[161]

Park C, Jang I, Park G, Min C, Kim M, Kim Y, et al.Effect of oxygen concentrations in intake air on combustion characteristics of ammonia direct injection SI engine.Fuel 2024; 376:132643.

[162]

Lee J, Park C, Jang I, Kim M, Park G, Kim Y.Experimental research on the effect of diesel post-injection conditions on the efficiency and global warming potential in a single-cylinder four-stroke marine engine fueled with ammonia and diesel.Energy 2025; 314:134244.

[163]

Mi S, Zhang J, Shi Z, Wu H, Zhao W, Qian Y, et al.Optimization of direct-injection ammonia–diesel dual-fuel combustion under low load and higher ammonia energy ratios.Fuel 2024; 375:132611.

[164]

Yang R, Yue Z, Zhang S, Lv Z, Yao M.Ammonia thermal atmosphere compression ignition combustion mode to achieve efficient combustion and low greenhouse gas emissions.Energy Convers Manag 2025; 325:119427.

[165]

Li Z, Fan Y, Li J, Wu K, Zhang Z, Ren F, et al.Stratified charge assisted jet ignition mode (SCAJI) for low-speed two-stroke Otto cycle ammonia marine engine.Fuel 2025; 379:133037.

[166]

Mi S, Zhang J, Shi Z, Wu H, Qian Y, Zhu L, et al.Investigation of low carbon emission and high thermal efficiency of diesel engine combined with high-pressure direct injection of hydrogen carrier: ammonia.Int J Hydrogen Energy 2024; 88:86-96.

[167]

Mi S, Shi Z, Zhang J, Wu H, Qian Y, Lu X.Exploration of ultra-low carbon heavy-duty commercial vehicle technology: liquid ammonia–diesel dual fuel high-pressure direct injection.Int J Engine Res 2024; 26(7):1029-1043.

[168]

Xiong Q, Zhao B, Wan Z, Liang D, Liu L.Effect of ammonia jet strategy and intake air temperature on mixing characteristics in ammonia/diesel dual-fuel marine engine.Appl Therm Eng 2025; 262:125192.

[169]

Wang Y, Zhou X, Liu L.Feasibility study of hydrogen jet flame ignition of ammonia fuel in marine low speed engine.Int J Hydrogen Energy 2023; 48(1):327-336.

[170]

Lin Z, Liu S, Liu W, Wang W, Cai K, Qi Y, et al.Numerical investigation of ammonia-rich combustion produces hydrogen to accelerate ammonia combustion in a direct injection SI engine.Int J Hydrogen Energy 2024; 49:338-351.

[171]

Li T, Zhou X, Wang N, Wang X, Chen R, Li S, et al.A comparison between low- and high-pressure injection dual-fuel modes of diesel-pilot-ignition ammonia combustion engines.J Energy Inst 2022; 102:362-373.

[172]

Cui J, Chen W, Wang B, Fan Y, Tian H, Long W, et al.Effects of relative position of injectors on the performance of ammonia/diesel two-stroke engines.Energy 2024; 309:133085.

PDF (11409KB)

264

Accesses

0

Citation

Detail

Sections
Recommended

/