High-performance polymers have become a strategic material to ensure national security and national economic development owing to their excellent comprehensive properties. They have been widely applied in important fields such as aerospace, electronics, and medical devices. This study reviews the key varieties of high-performance polymers in four categories: high-performance resins and engineering plastics, organic fibers, bio-based resins and degradable materials, and special rubber and elastomers. The current status and characteristics of key high-performance polymers in China and abroad are analyzed. The study revealed that an industrialization system, including chemical raw material synthesis, modification, and product application, has been established in China. Besides, the current development challenges like the insufficient supply of key raw materials and limited development and application of products are discussed. Accordingly, relevant suggestion for technological innovation, key raw material security, and industrial innovation consortia construction are proposed, paving the way for the development of high-performance polymers in China.